                       DISPATCHER STRESS
                                
                               By
                                
                      Tod W. Burke, Ph.D.
                     Former Police Officer
                      Associate Professor
                 Department of Criminal Justice
                       Radford Universty
                        Radford, Virginia
    (Dr. Burke coordinated the study
                   discussed in this article.)


    During the past decade, the law enforcement community and
individual researchers have devoted considerable attention to the
issue of police stress. Much of this research has focused on
finding better ways to manage those specific factors that cause
stress for law enforcement officers.

    Today, as a direct result of this research, it is common to
find police officers attending stress management seminars,
lectures, and workshops as part of academy and inservice training
programs. Unfortunately, this increased attention to police
stress has failed to reach other components of the law
enforcement community that also experience high stress levels.

    This article focuses on the specific factors that may
contribute to stress and burnout among an often-forgotten segment
of the law enforcement population--police dispatchers. In
particular, it examines the relationship between dispatcher
stress and job satisfaction, social support, and control. The
article then discusses the findings of a recent survey of
civilian dispatchers in New Jersey. It also offers
recommendations for agency administrators to enhance not only the 
conditions under which police dispatchers work but also the
ability of dispatchers to serve their agencies and their
communities.

THE DISPATCHER'S ROLE

    Dispatchers perform a complex and stressful function.
Unfortunately, the critical role they play often is misunderstood
by administrators, officers, and citizens.

    Dispatchers must be able to handle incoming calls, dispatch
officers, transfer calls to appropriate agencies, coordinate
multiple units for emergency calls, record computer requests by
field units, and in some cases, process written reports.
Frequently, they must provide immediate emergency care
instructions to panicked, distressed, and highly emotional
callers. They must perform all of these functions while remaining
calm and reassuring. Additionally, dispatchers often play a vital
role in ensuring the safety of others, not only callers but also
officers on the street.

    Those who most rely on dispatchers--hurried officers who
demand immediate attention to their requests and citizens who
expect instant resolutions to their problems--often fail to
appreciate the diversity of roles performed by dispatchers.
Likewise, supervisors and administrators often overlook the many
different functions that dispatchers perform.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO STRESS AND BURNOUT
    
    Many individuals in law enforcement regularly refer to the
terms "stress" and "burnout" without possessing a clear
understanding of their meanings. For the purposes of the research
presented in this article, stress is defined as "the nonspecific
response of the body to any demand." (1) By contrast, burnout is
defined as "the result of constant or repeated emotional pressure
associated with an intense involvement with people over long
periods of time." (2) It is the "painful realization that
(individuals) no longer can help people in need; that they have
nothing left in them to give." (3)
 
    While many occupational settings are stressful, dispatchers
experience specific stressors unique to their position. Past
studies identified aspects of the dispatcher's job that
contribute to stress and burnout. (4) They include: Being
relegated to a low position within the departmental hierarchy;
insufficient training; lack of support and positive reinforcement
from officers, supervisors, and managers; shift work; lack of
control; antiquated equipment; confinement and lack of
interpersonal communication; lack of breaks; negative citizen
contacts; lack of personal development; and insufficient pay.

    Although many of these stressors have been cited in informal
interviews, more formal studies that fully examine the
relationship between dispatcher stress and independent stressors
have been lacking. The New Jersey study marks the first formal
effort to examine the relationship between stress and burnout
among dispatchers, with particular attention devoted to job
satisfaction, social support, and supervisory control. (5)

METHOD OF RESEARCH 

    For this study, researchers randomly selected civilian
dispatchers from various police agencies throughout southern New
Jersey. The research focused only on civilian dispatchers and
thus excluded status issues pertaining to sworn officers who
performed dispatcher duties. Further, the counties of southern
New Jersey were selected because they included urban, suburban,
and rural agencies, thereby permitting greater application of the
survey results.

    After securing approval from the heads of the selected
agencies, researchers mailed survey forms to the departments'
dispatchers. Of the 411 surveys distributed, 254 completed
responses were received, for a return rate of 62 percent.

RESULTS OF THE STUDY

Job Satisfaction

    The researchers predicted that police dispatchers who were
dissatisfied with their job, lacked social support, and perceived
little control over their working environment would experience
the greatest amount of occupational stress and burnout. Job
satisfaction was defined as the totality of the dispatchers'
feelings about various aspects of their occupation. These aspects
included the work itself, pay, promotional opportunities,
coworker support, and supervisory support. (6)

    Results indicated that perceived job satisfaction was a
major factor in police dispatcher stress and occupational
burnout. Specifically, those dispatchers who were dissatisfied
with their current position experienced significant stress.
Dispatchers who were dissatisfied with their current pay and lack
of promotional opportunities also reported elevated levels of
stress and burnout.

    Additionally, dispatchers reported a high level of role
conflict and a confused sense of loyalty in the workplace. In
other words, as the dispatcher's role became more complex, the
level of stress increased. While a lack of supervisory support
was a major stressor, dispatchers who had the support of
co-workers reported less psychological stress and burnout. Thus,
those dispatchers who perceived that they were being treated as
second-class citizens, lacked pay and promotional opportunities,
experienced conflicting role demands, or lacked supervisory
support reported higher levels of job stress and burnout.

    The study defined social support as a network of
communication offering guidance and feedback about individuals'
behavior that validate their self-concept. (7) Results indicated
that lack of social support plays a vital role in dispatcher
stress. Those dispatchers who indicated the least amount of job
stress and burnout possessed the following characteristics:
Intimate contacts with close friends outside of the workplace; a
sense of belonging to some type of social network; a close
working relationship with colleagues; belief that family members
could be counted on for assistance in an emergency; and belief
that they could count on colleagues for advice, guidance, and
expertise in certain areas. In other words, those dispatchers who
perceived that they had a network of support--both within and
outside the workplace--reported the least amount of job stress
and burnout.

Locus of Control

    Locus of control refers to the level of control individuals
exert over their environment. Specifically, internal locus of
control refers to those events that are contingent upon one's
own behavior. External locus of control suggests those events
that are not contingent upon one's own actions, but rather upon
luck, chance, fate, or other outside factors. (8) Survey results
indicated that dispatchers who perceived a lack of control
over their working environment experienced greater occupational
stress and burnout.

    Those dispatchers who perceived that they had control over
their work setting also reported a greater sense of personal
achievement and responsibility on the job, while those
dispatchers who perceived a lack of control within their agency
reported feeling emotionally exhausted and overextended by their
work. This lack of control accounted for dispatchers' reporting
an impersonal and uncaring attitude toward the citizens they
served. A majority of dispatchers also reported that their
training, education, skills, and experience were inadequate for
the demands of the job. In essence, many dispatchers perceived a
negative work setting.

UNIQUE ASPECTS OF DISPATCHER STRESS

    While respondents indicated an extensive list of stressors,
three particular aspects of their work emerged as particularly
stress-inducing. These included their low status within the
department's hierarchy, the high level of responsibility they
felt toward others, and the lack of training provided to them.

Low Status

    One of the stressors that most affected job satisfaction
among dispatchers was their perception of low status. Dispatchers
commonly reported hearing disparaging remarks, such as "What do
you expect? They are only dispatchers," from departmental
personnel or callers. Their civilian status within a sworn
organization and their physical isolation from other personnel
reinforced this perception of being second-class citizens. This
degradation came not only from line officers but also from
supervisors and other civilian employees who participated in
"dispatcher bashing."

Responsibility to Others

    The high level of responsibility that dispatchers feel
toward others represented another unique source of stress.
Dispatchers truly act as "lifelines" to fellow workers and
citizens. Thus, when someone calls for assistance, the dispatcher
must initiate the response and monitor the progress. For example,
when a police officer calls for backup, it is the dispatcher's
responsibility to identify the problem and send available units
to the scene, while at the same time remaining calm and handling
other incoming emergencies.

Lack of Formal Training

    Dispatchers cited the lack of formal training as another
significant source of stress and burnout. While many occupations
require advanced educational degrees and provide formal training
to employees, dispatchers often learn their trade on the job.
Although their high level of responsibility would suggest proper
training, this is rarely the case. Academy and ongoing inservice
training programs for dispatchers are extremely rare. The
training programs and workshops that do exist often are conducted
by private organizations not associated with the agency.

    Should individual dispatchers decide to attend an outside
training program, it is unlikely that their departments will
sponsor or reimburse them for expenses. Yet, dispatchers know
that few police administrators would hesitate to sponsor or
reimburse a sworn officer who attends a training program.

RECOMMENDATIONS

    Administrators can use the results of this study to
re-examine the support networks within their agencies in order to
alleviate the high level of occupational stress inherent in all
aspects of policing. Simple steps may prove quite effective. For
example, by making sure that dispatchers are included in
after-hours gatherings, supervisors can go a long way toward
integrating them into an agency's sense of esprit de corps. Such
seemingly modest moves afford dispatchers a chance to socialize
with officers and other members of their department and gives
them an ideal opportunity to establish peer support.

    In addition, professional or peer counseling should be made
available to any dispatcher experiencing high levels of
job-related stress. Counseling may prove invaluable not only in
terms of the health of individual employees but also in terms of
job performance. Administrators should consider support networks
and seminars as part of an inservice training program. For
example, spouse/companion programs could be implemented to give
spouses and significant others a better understanding of the
complex role dispatchers play in an agency and the anticipated
stress that may accompany that role.

    Communication and understanding between dispatchers and line
officers also foster a sense of support. Supervisors should
strongly encourage that dispatchers ride along with field
officers to observe the actual scenarios officers encounter. In
turn, officers, as part of their inservice and academy training,
should observe dispatchers within their particular work setting.
Administrators also must avoid assigning officers to the dispatch
center as a form of punishment for ineffective field performance.
The dispatch center should not become a dumping ground for
officers with poor attitudes.

    Police executives must recognize the importance of job
satisfaction among all employees, including dispatchers.
Therefore, they should re-examine promotional opportunities,
particularly for those dispatchers who perceive themselves as
lower status employees.

    While salary and benefits do not guarantee job satisfaction,
adequate compensation does affirm an agency's commitment to its
employees. Improved salary and benefits are a tangible way to
show dispatchers that management understands their difficult
role.

    The complex role performed by dispatchers can be simplified
through proper training sessions so that the training, education,
and skills of dispatchers correspond adequately to the job
demands. These sessions should be similar to academy and
inservice classes provided to officers but should be modified  
to meet the specific needs of dispatchers. Like inservice
training designed for officers, they also should be tuition-free.

    Additionally, "dispatcher reference guides" should be made
available to assist each dispatcher. These guides should contain
details and procedures focusing on: Obtaining vital information;
performing call analyses; protecting callers, victims, and
officers; learning apprehension/custody processes; and preserving
evidence. Departments can obtain these guides from a commercial
dispatcher training provider and modify them to meet specific
agency needs and demands.

    Further, police managers need to create a work environment
that allows dispatchers some degree of control over their
actions. This can be accomplished by permitting dispatchers to
provide input during any decisionmaking process affecting the
communications section. Examples include operational policy and
communications center hiring procedures.

    Finally, if dispatchers are to be perceived as team players,
they must receive supervisory support, as well as support from
other members of the department. Supervisory support includes not
only positive reinforcement but also the necessary resources to
accomplish assigned tasks.

CONCLUSION

    The findings of this formal research project indicate that
dispatchers report job stress and burnout primarily as a result
of job dissatisfaction, a lack of social support, and a perceived
lack of control. Fortunately, police managers can take fairly
simple steps to address these factors and thus foster a better
work environment for dispatchers.

    As the role of law enforcement officers continues to grow
more complex, so too do the role and responsibilities of police
dispatchers. Administrators who treat dispatchers as second-class
citizens do more than contribute to stress and burnout among a
vital component of their agency's workforce. They jeopardize the
ability of their agency to respond effectively to criminal
activity and emergency situations.


ENDNOTES

    (1)  H. Seyle, Stress Without Distress (revised) (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1978), 1.

    (2)  A.M. Pines, E. Aronson, and D. Kafry, Burnout:  From
Tedium to Personal Growth (New York:  Free Press, 1981), 15.

    (3)  Ibid.

    (4)  J.D. Sewell and L. Crew,  "The Forgotten Victim: 
Stress and the Police Dispatcher," FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin,
53, no. 3, 1984; T. Guthery and J. Guthery,  "Dispatchers:  The
Vital Link," Police Product News, December, 1984;  T.W. Burke,
"The Relationship Between Dispatcher Stress and Social Support,
Job Satisfaction, and Locus of Control" (Ph.D. diss., City
University of New York, 1991), Dissertation Abstracts
International, 52/05-A, 1903. 

    (5)  The study included subjects who were exclusively police
dispatchers; exclusively fire/ambulance dispatchers; those who
dispatched both police and fire/ambulance personnel; or those who
served as civilian clerks within a law enforcement institution. 
However, for the purpose of this article, only those who were
exclusively police dispatchers are discussed.

    (6)  C.L. Hulin, P.C. Smith, L.M. Kendall, and E.A. Locke,
Cornell Studies of Job Satisfaction:  Model and Method of
Measuring Job Satisfaction (Ithaca, New York:  Cornell
University, 1963).

    (7)  G. Caplan and M. Killilea, Support Systems and Mutual
Help: Multidisciplinary Explorations (New York:  Grune and
Stratton, 1976).

    (8)  H.M. Lefcourt, Locus of Control:  Current Trends in
Theory and Research (New Jersey:  Erlbaum, 1976); J.B. Rotter, 
"Generalized Expectancies for Internal Versus External Control of
Reinforcement," Psychological Monographs, 80, no. 1, 1966.

                             (More)




                      * * * SIDEBAR * * *
                                
                 STRESSORS CITED BY DISPATCHERS

    The following factors contribute to stress among police
dispatchers:

      Dissatisfaction with job
      Dissatisfaction with position
      Dissatisfaction with pay
      Dissatisfaction with promotional opportunities
      High level of role conflict
      Lack of loyalties in the workplace
      Lack of close friends (outside of the workplace)
      Lack of a social support network
      Poor working relationship with colleagues/officers
      Inability to count on family members for support
      Inability to count on colleagues for advice,              
         guidance, and expertise
      Low status 
      Lack of supervisory support
      Lack of control over the work setting
      Lack of training
      Lack of education/skills/experience for job               
         demands
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