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                               Hallucinogens
             A comprehensive guide for laymen and professionals
            by Joe E. Axton with Jeremy Bigwood and Jonathan Ott

                ASCII Conversion by Swedish Infomania 1997

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                Magic & Madness: Hallucinogens De-Mystified

    Plants containing most of the drugs covered in this booklet have been
known and used for their hallucinogenic properties since prehistoric times.
Almost all of these plants have traditionally been used in a religious
context. The cultures that used these plant drugs considered them a means
of achieving a direct contact with the "spirit" world, a means of looking
inward. Until recent years, the use of hallucinogenic drugs was primarily
limited to what we might call primitive cultures; there was an especially
high concentration of hallucinogen users among native New World peoples.
What survived of primitive hallucinogen use in Old World cultures was
usually attacked as "witchcraft" or "devil worship."
    Maverick researchers interested in the workings of the human mind
and/or in the mystical religious experience had, of course, been
experimenting with hallucinogens long before the discovery of LSD in 1938 -
but it was LSD that initiated our civilization's Psychedelic Era. It is by
far the best known, most potent, most widely used and most available of the
hallucinogens.
    It took five years after LSD was first synthesized to discover its
effects, and still a few more years after that to begin looking for ways to
use it. The U.S. Army tested its usefulness for brainwashing and later
stockpiled it in large amounts for possible use as a chemical warfare
agent. However, when chemicals capable of producing even more bizarre
effects were developed, the military lost interest in the drug.
    LSD was introduced to the psychiatric profession through the back door.
Initially, the effects of the new compound suggested its possible use as an
agent for producing a temporary "model psychosis." Many psychologists took
the drug themselves and gave it to staff members of mental hospitals in the
belief that it might lead to greater empathy with and understanding of
mental patients. It wasn't until the early fifties that LSD began to be
used on the patients themselves. By the mid-fifties, LSD was a major
subject of controversy among psychotherapists. By 1965, it was estimated
that between 30,000 and 40,000 psychiatric patients around the world had
received LSD in therapy, and some 2000 scientific papers on LSD had been
published - an intense interest matched by few other drugs.
    At first, therapists most often employed LSD (and sometimes mescaline
and psilocybin) at a low dosage level on a repeated basis within the
framework of continuing psychotherapy. In the late 1950s, a number of
therapists began using LSD in a highly specialized form of brief intensive
psychotherapy. High doses were used in one- shot sessions (after weeks of
intense preparation) to produce what has been referred to as a "conversion"
experience. Many experimenters were favorably impressed with the results of
psychedelic psychotherapy, especially in psychotherapy for alcoholics and
terminal cancer patients. Many, however, offered such cautions as:
    ...it should be emphasized that LSD is not conceived to have any
inherent beneficial effects... The therapeutic potential of LSD depends
primarily on its ability to activate in the patient a period of intense
emotionality while still allowing for control direction and guidance by the
therapist. It is the sequence of psychological experience upon which the
therapeutic intent and structuring is focused. The analogy that we have
sometimes used to try to convey the role of LSD in therapy is that of a
scalpel in surgical intervention; the scalpel is helpful but without the
skilled surgeon it is merely a dangerous instrument. (DeBold, ea., LSD, Man
and Society; The Therapeutic Potential of LSD in Medicine)
    But, as it turned out, it was a short and easy step from professionally
directed to self-directed and non-directed psychedelic experiences. Among
the first to use LSD privately for non-therapeutic purposes were
physicians, psychiatrists, and other mental health professionals, as well
as the laymen who took LSD in their company.
    Those who felt that the experience was beneficial often went on to
initiate or encourage other friends to use the drug. Some people, who felt
that their lives had been immeasureably enhanced by their LSD experiences,
proselytized the use of the drug with a fervor usually reserved for
religious missionaries. Thus, small circles of LSD users began growing
around the country, especially near universities.
    In the early sixties, Drs. Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert, along with
a small group of their friends and students, began experimenting with
hallucinogens at Harvard University. In 1962 the group's activities
attracted the attention of Federal Drug Administration and Massachusetts
law enforcement officials. In 1963 Leary and Alpert were forced to leave
Harvard, accompanied by nationwide publicity.
    This publicity, which uncovered a new source of unfailingly
sensationalistic news copy, was a major factor in launching the psychedelic
era. What was previously spread by word of mouth now had the aid of the
mass media. By the late 1960s the focus of media attention on
hallucinogenic drug use had generated fantastic public interest in LSD and
its alleged "transcendent" effects, an interest manifested as both fear and
curiosity. To placate the fearful, restrictions were quickly placed on the
manufacture and use of LSD and other psychedelics in the U.S., even for
therapeutic purposes. By this time, however, illegal laboratories had
already begun manufacturing LSD to meet the demand of the curious.

    What Is An Hallucinogen?

    An "hallucinogen" triggers changes in consciousness which are
characterized by hallucinatory phenomena. For example, large doses of
strychnine may cause hallucinations, alcohol-induced delirium tremens often
involves hallucinations, and the literature is full of references to the
dreams and visions which result from the use of opiates and other
preparations. None of these drugs are generally considered to be
hallucinogens, nor will they be so considered in this book. Hallucinogens,
in the sense of this book are: "Chemicals which, in nontoxic doses, produce
changes in perception, in thought, and in mood, but which seldom produce
mental confusion, memory loss, or disorientation for person, place, and
time." (Hoffer and Osmond, The Hallucinogens). These changes are mental
effects, not physical; stupor, narcosis, or excessive stimulation are not
characteristic of the drugs' actions. Because they are mental drugs and
have few effects on the body, physical addiction and overdose potential are
not a characteristic of most hallucinogenic drugs.
    It is often argued that "hallucinogen" is not a satisfactory term for
the LSD-like drugs because it overemphasizes the perceptual elements of
these drugs' actions. When this term is used, however, it at least suggests
a specific group of drugs. Other terms often used to refer to roughly the
same group of drugs include: Psychotomimetic (psychosismimicking),
psycholytic (dissolves resistance in therapy), and psychedelic
(mind-expanding). All of these terms have their own limitations.
"Psychedelic" is one of our favorites, but in popular usage it has come to
mean almost any non-alcoholic means of getting high, a meaning we wish to
avoid. All of these terms are used in this booklet. There may be some
professional disagreement, but we have tried to use the most appropriate
term in each case.

    How Do Hallucinogens Work?

    It is not known exactly how the hallucinogens produce changes in
consciousness. There are a number of possibilities. There is little doubt
that the hallucinogens interfere with the transmission of impulses between
brain cells. This effect may be accomplished either at the point of
junction (the synapse) between cells, or by altering the activity within
individual cells.
    An hallucinogenic drug may influence a nerve cell by: 1) blocking
energy production within the cell preventing the cell from transmitting
impulses; or 2) by increasing permeability of the blood-brain barrier and
allowing blood constituents normally filtered by this barrier to enter the
brain (these blood factors may include some naturally occurring body
chemicals that are neuroactive and may result in hallucinosis if introduced
to the brain in high concentrations).
    Hallucinogenic drugs may alter synaptic transmission by: 1) competitive
inhibition (substituting for the transmitting chemicals); or 2) by directly
accelerating or inhibiting the action or metabolism of the transmitting
substances.
    The relatively few and similar chemical structures found in the major
hallucinogens would seem to support the theory that they cause similar
actions in the brain, by acting on common mechanisms. This theory is
further supported in that "cross tolerance" is observed between some of the
major hallucinogens.
    The most specific and most potent hallucinogens, including LSD,
psilocybin, and DMT, are indole derivatives, and are therefore structurally
related to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine). A similar
structural relationship exists between mescaline and the neurotransmitter
norepinephrine. Chemical similarity between hallucinogens and
neurotransmitter substances is without a doubt one of the most important
factors accounting for the actions of these drugs.
    There are a great many similarities between psychedelic experiences and
the experiences of some persons said to be suffering from mental disorders.
It has even been suggested that persons suffering from so-called mental
disorders may be in some way synthesizing hallucinogenic compounds through
an aberrant pathway in their brains. Despite intensive research, none of
these theories has been verified or substantiated.

    The Subjective Experience

    The psychedelic drugs are often thought of as triggers that
"short-circuit" normal brain function, leaving the nature of the experience
itself to be largely determined by individual factors. The user's own prior
expectations, personality, mood, and the environment in which the
experience occursare probably more important than any other factors in
determining the nature of a psychedelic experience. (For a discussion of
the influence of "set" and "setting" in psychedelic experiences, see The
Natural Mind by Andrew Weil.)
    Moreover, the effects of hallucinogenic drugs are highly dose
dependent. Larger doses, unlike many other drugs. will not necessarily
produce simply more of the same. Different dose levels may produce
completely different effects. In therapy, this is responsible for the
distinction between use of hallucinogens as psycholytics at low doses, to
dissolve resistance to the therapeutic process, and as psychedelics in high
doses, to produce "conversion experiences." There exist, however,
"saturation points," levels of dosage above which no further effects can be
elicited. The saturation point for LSD is thought to be around 500 mcg.
    What we may conclude from this is that it is very difficult to
generalize about hallucinogenic experiences. Any description of subjective
effects is valid only for one particular drug at a particular dose for a
particular individual at a particular point in space and time. A person who
has been introduced to hallucinogenic drugs in a recreational context may
possibly stagger around, slur his speech, and act intoxicated. A person who
associates a psychedelic experience with going crazy is likely to have a
psychotic reaction. Certainly, an account of a trip taken in a sterile
laboratory with eight psychologists watching and taking notes, and four 200
pound orderlies standing at the ready, will differ greatly from an account
of a trip taken on a sunny day in the country with a friend. The extremely
flexible nature of psychedelic experiences and the importance of non-drug
factors accounts for some of the extravagant and widely varied claims of
early LSD researchers. Those researchers who thought they were testing a
psychotomimetic almost invariably elicited psychotic responses from their
subjects, patients of Jungian psychiatrists tended to react to psychedelics
in Jungian terms, patients of Rankians tended to react in Rankian concepts,
those psychedelic subjects who were introduced to psychedelics in a
religious context tended to find some version of God within the experience.
    Some researchers divide psychedelic experiences into general types. The
most common system delineates five such types: psychotic, psychodynamic,
cognitive, aesthetic, and mystical (DeBold, ea., LSD, Man and Society). A
psychotic experience is described as being characterized by panic, paranoid
distrust, confusion, isolation, and/or extreme depression. The term is
sometimes used to refer to any negative psychedelic experience, although it
is usually reserved for trips that get dangerously out of control.
    In a psychodynamic experience, subconscious material is brought to the
surface. This is the type of experience usually sought when hallucinogens
are used in psychotherapy.
    A cognitive experience is characterized by what appears to be
astonishingly lucid thought. Subjectively, the mind seems able to see
things from new perspectives and to see the interrelationships of many
levels or dimensions of thought simultaneously. It is questionable whether
this insight is real or only seems so. We only use it as a subjective
"type" labeleven if the state is delusional it still describes the feeling
of the experience.
    An aesthetic experience is described as one in which the sensory
aspects of the experience predominate. The psychedelic drugs' effects on
perception and sensation are perhaps the most publicized aspects of their
actions. The stories of beautifully colored visions, hallucinations (not
only visual but auditory, gustatory, olfactory, and tactile), synaesthesia
(in which sounds can be "seen"), of ordinary objects pulsating and becoming
alive or seeming to be imbued with great beauty, of music acquiring great
emotional power, are widely publicized and well known. This is the type of
experience usually sought when the psychedelics are used as recreational
drugs. Fascinating changes in perception and sensation do often occur, but
the degree and frequency of such changes may be somewhat exaggerated. Of
course, the frequency of these types of sensations, and their predominance
over other types of effects is a function of the expectation of the user,
the setting, and so forth.
    A mystical experience is sometimes compared to the states sought in
Transcendental Meditation, Zen, and other religious disciplines, although
many people (especially practitioners of religious disciplines) feel that
the hallucinogenic experience is a poor substitute. This experience is
described principally as a "loss of ego," a loss of sense of self, so that
the concept of "I" loses its meaninga feeling that "all is one." This
feeling is often accompanied by overwhelming joy from what is felt to be
deep, religious, often irrational or paradoxical insight into the nature of
the universe.
    A psychedelic experience, of course, rarely fits neatly into any one of
these categories. It is more likely to include aspects of all five. Exactly
what aspects depends again on dosage and the individual user. A few
effects, like intensified emotion, some visual distortion, and a degree of
depersonalization are reported with most psychedelic experiences. That the
specific types of experience often seem so clear-cut may be a result of the
drugs' tendencies to produce a sort of mental tunnel visionall types may
result from biochemical actions, but whichever aspect of the experience may
attract or captivate the mind is the one that predominates at any
particular time.
    Although a common range of effects is reported with all of the
psychedelic drugs, certain characteristics are more often reported with
some drugs than others. Psilocybin, for instance, has a reputation for
producing especially vivid hallucinations. Mescaline is known for its
general effect on sensory perception. With LSD, the mental-cognitive
effects are thought to predominate. There may be greater variance when the
plant sources of these drugs are used as hallucinogens, because the
specific hallucinogenic chemical rarely occurs naturally without being
accompanied by various other bioactive compounds.

    Freaking Out

    Psychedelic drugs can temporarily change a person's entire conception
of consciousness and life. These drugs can cause alterations in space and
time perception  two of the basic orienting points of human existence. A
subject's sense of self may be weakened or obliterated. Sometimes the
drugs' actions are interpreted by the user as a chance for "new perspective
and greater insight." At other times they may be interpreted negatively, as
cause for fear.
    Experienced psychedelic users usually have a healthy respect for the
potential dangers of a psychedelic experience. In psycholytic and
psychedelic therapy, a psychotherapist begins preparing the patient for the
experience many days ahead of time. Among religious users psychedelic use
is highly ritualized, with purification rites, dietary restrictions, and a
full set of customs and instructions to ensure that the subjects are
prepared for the experience, which is then carried out in a controlled
environment. Even in the early days of popular use in the U.S., people
rarely tripped without a "trip guide" and a safe place in which to have the
experience. But in the late 1960's, hallucinogenic drugs began to be used
much like alcohol or marijuana, as social and entertainment drugs. The
result, not surprisingly, was a much higher incidence of negative
experiences. Because of the profound effects these drugs have upon
consciousness, guidelines for their use must be observed.
    "Set and setting" is one of the best known phrases in the psychedelic
subculture. The nature of a psychedelic experience depends upon set,
setting, and dosage. Dosage on the psychedelic street market is a largely
unpredictable factor, but there is no reason to leave set and setting to
chance. Avoidance of bad trips by being aware of, and allowing for set and
setting is much easier than dealing with a bad trip after it has begun.
    "Set" refers to the user's "head-set": current emotional state,
intellectual, religious and sexual makeup, and the user's prior
expectations for the experience. In psychedelic therapy, in countries where
it is legal, subjects are screened to eliminate those mental states known
not to react well to psychedelics. The population of illicit users have no
such screening process, but generally, persons with histories of mental
disorder, or persons taking psychedelic drugs when they are upset or under
strain are just asking for trouble.
    "Setting" refers to the environment in which the psychedelic experience
takes place. Persons under the influence of psychedelic drugs often have a
difficult time differentiating between what occurs outside their heads and
what occurs inside. For instance, harsh, glaring lighting may make a
psychedelic experience seem harsh and glaring. Noise and excitement outside
can make it clatter and bang inside. Nervous persons can make a
hallucinogen user nervous. Small changes in the environment can make a
great difference in a trippers perception of the experience. Turning down
the lights or avoiding some people may help create a more relaxed
atmosphere.
    Conversely, if darkness seems to be causing a sense of foreboding and
withdrawal, turning on some light might be a good idea. It is never a good
idea to take psychedelics in an environment over which you have no control.
Most serious bad trips are simply panic reactions, usually occurring near
the period of initial "ego loss," as the psychedelic experience nears its
peak. The tripper may get the feeling that he is going away and never
coming back. The person having a bad trip wants to think about it and
figure it out because he can't rationalize because he's so nervous and
high; and the more he tries to think about it, the more frightened he
becomes. It is difficult, and usually not advisable, to try to rationalize
with a person in this state. If you have to sit with an acid bummer,
remember to keep. it simple, and that feelings get through more clearly
than words. Be calm. Smile. Help him or her to stop fighting it, to go with
it. Help the tripper enjoy what he sees, feels and hears. Remind him that
it is only a drug that is causing the effects, and that they will soon
disappear. Assure him that you will not let anything hurt him, and that the
experience is not real. Touch the subject and remind him or her that they
still exist in the physical world. Remind him that the bad experience is
only in his head, that he is not going insane and will soon come down. If
he is hung up on a problem, remind him that psychedelics tend to magnify
problems. It may look better later all by itself, and it doesn't have to be
dealt with right now. If he wants to deal with it, listen, but as a friend,
not a therapist. If it gets too hard, shift gears; trippers are easily
distracted. Get him or her to describe things to you, take a walk out in
the open. Keep in mind that it's the feeling, more than the words, that
will help. Five hundred milligrams of niacin (Vitamin B-3) helps smooth out
a ad trip. Just the familiar act of taking a pill as a curative measure can
be very soothing.
    On rare occasions, a person having a bad trip may have to be physically
restrained to protect him from injury. You may be able to lie on top of the
person, restraining him, while making it look like an affectionate hug. As
a last resort, you may have to call an ambulance for medical treatment, but
the situation need not get this far if handled properly. If the person
having a bad trip finds himself in a hospital with the accompanying noise,
institutional setting, and strange people in uniforms, he may very likely
require a few days to recover. Needless to say, jail is an even worse place
in which to come down.

    Tolerance and Dependence

    Tolerance to the effects of a psychedelic drug occurs very rapidly when
the drug is used daily. Usually, within three days the dose must be
increased to maintain a similar level of effect. This tolerance disappears
as rapidly as it develops. Tolerance does not seem to develop when the drug
is used monthly or even weekly. Cross- tolerance has been shown to occur
between LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin, meaning that users who develop a
tolerance to one will also have developed a tolerance to the other two.
    Physical dependence has not been shown to occur with any of the
hallucinogens. Neither are there any withdrawal symptoms when individuals
stop using these drugs, even after periods of repeated and heavy use.
Psychological dependence, however, does sometimes occur in spite of the
rapid development of tolerance. A few individuals seem to crave repetition
of the psychedelic experience over a period of days or weeks even though
most of the effects have ceased to occur at all, and the only feeling the
user may have is one of slight "spaciness." This is generally thought to be
an indication of a desire for self-abuse rather than any dependence-
producing potential of the drugs.

    Flashbacks

    Flashbacks are the occurrence of psychedelic effects long after the
drug thought to be responsible for the effect has been eliminated from the
body. The reports of flashbacks are rare. The evidence for the existence of
flashbacks is only anecdotal. As yet, there is no known pharmacological
basis for their occurrence. Most likely these are related to self-hypnosis
(a facsimile of a psychedelic experience can be created by hypnosis in
persons who know the experience); that is, the flashback is induced by
something in an environment or an emotional state that recalls to mind a
past psychedelic experience.

    Psychosis

    Psychotic reactions are occasionally reported to persist long after the
end of a psychedelic experience. This type of psychosis is a reaction to
extreme emotional trauma, which a psychedelic experience is capable of
eliciting. This occurs most often in persons who have histories of mental
disorder. Cases of psychosis have also been reported in people who have
been given psychedelic drugs without their knowledge. Cases of temporary
psychosis are infrequently reported to occur in seemingly healthy persons
as a result of intensely negative psychedelic experiences.

    Chromosome Damage

    "Chromosome Damage" was a phrase used in the late sixties in propaganda
directed against the use of LSD. LSD does cause some chromosome alteration.
So does color television, aspirin and any number of other drugs and
activities. Use of psychedelic drugs has not been related to a higher
incidence of genetic defects or deformed babies. It is, however, wise to
curtail the use of all drugs during pregnancy, especially the critical
early months.

    The B-Phenethylamine Hallucinogens

    The compounds discussed in this section comprise one of the two main
structural categories of hallucinogenic agents. The phenethylamine
hallucinogens are closely related to the amphetamines and are often
referred to as the amphetamine-related or simply, the amphetamine
psychedelics  especially MDA, STP,PMA, and the remaining members of this
group.

    Mescaline

    Mescaline (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine) was isolated from the peyote
cactus, Lophophora williamsii, in 1896. This compound was first synthesized
in 1918. As one of the first hallucinogens to be isolated, mescaline became
a center of scientific interest during the first half of this century.
Mescaline was the hallucinogen most widely used for research and
psychotherapy prior to the discovery of LSD.
    Mescaline occurs only in one North American species of cactus. A
related compound, macromerine, is found in another North American cactus,
Coryphantha macromeris. A few South American species of cactus contain
mescaline, notably the San Pedro cactus, Trichocereus pachanoi. San Pedro
is widely used in folk medicine in South America, and is sold openly in the
markets of some countries.
    The peyote cactus was used as a religious sacrament by Mexican Indian
tribes in prehistoric times, and was observed to be widely used in Mexico
at the time of the conquest. The Aztecs called this cactus "peyotl,"
meaning "furry thing," a reference to the tufts of hairy fibers which crown
the mature plant. In spite of four centuries of vigorous civil and
ecclesiastical opposition, peyote is still used by a few tribes in northern
Mexico.
    The use of peyote began spreading north from Mexico on a large scale
during the middle of the 1 9th century, at the close of the Indian wars.
Indian prophets like Quanah Parker and John Wilson carried a Christianized
version of the peyote ritual from tribe to tribe throughout the western
United States and parts of Canada. Thus a peyote cult came to replace the
"Red Bean" culta cult based on the ceremonial ingestion of the beans of
Sophora secundiflora. The red beans were dangerous, an hallucinogenic dose
being near a fatal dose, and peyote proved to be a much safer sacrament. By
1954, it was estimated that fully one half of all North American Indians
had experienced the effects of peyote. Despite attempts to stigmatize the
use of peyote as "peyotism," and to portray the drug plant as being
dangerous, use of peyote was eventually legalized for Native American
members of peyote cults. Today some 250,000 members of the Native American
Church continue to use peyote in religious ritual.
    Synthetic mescaline is rarely available on the illicit drug market.
Only two out of every hundred "mescaline" samples submitted to street drug
analysis programs turn out to be authentic. Real mescaline is white, in
prismatic crystals. It is recognizable by its terrible taste (like
peyote)the usual substitutes, LSD and PCP, are comparatively tasteless.
Since an hallucinogenic dose of mescaline sulfate ranges from 300 to 500
milligrams, real mescaline would have to be contained in a capsule of at
least number 0 or number 00, to be of sufficient dosage. The chances of a
smaller capsule being mescaline are nil.
    Peyote buttons, the tops of peyote cacti (the roots contain only traces
of mescaline) are fairly common on the illicit drug market in the
southwestern U.S. and in northern Mexico, where the cactus grows wild.
There is, however, evidence that peyote is becoming extinct in the United
States.
    Peyote contains over fifty alkaloids besides mescaline. Some of the
other alkaloids are bioactive, therefore an experience with mescaline is
markedly different from a peyote experience. The stimulating and nausea-
producing effects of peyote are much more pronounced than those of
mescaline. Peyote also contains a reflex excitant, a convulsant, a
respiratory stimulant, and other compounds which may be active.
    Three to six peyote buttons is an average dose of peyote, although
Indians are said to eat as many as thirty at one time. Most people have
trouble chewing and swallowing enough of the material to experience the
effects, because the buttons have such a bitter taste (alkaloids are, as a
rule, bitter to the taste, and this plant contains over 50). Some people
wash down peyote buttons with strong citrus juice, while others grind up
the buttons and place the material in capsules. The tufts of white hair on
the buttons are usually removed, as they are thought to cause cramps.
(These tufts are widely thought to contain strychnine, which is a myth.
Strychnine is an entirely unrelated compound from the seeds of Strychnos
nux-vomica.)
    The effects of both synthetic (or extracted) mescaline and peyote begin
approximately one to two hours after ingestion, and usually last from six
to ten hours. In either case, there is usually some sort of stomach
disorder and perhaps some vomiting, especially with the plant material. We
asked our Friendly Neighborhood Chemist why this happens and he said it is
"simply a body reaction to foreign chemicals, particularly active amines,
that trigger the nausea and vomit reflex when blood concentration reaches a
certain level." The Indian peyote ritual provides for vomiting during the
ceremony.
    The initial nausea is accompanied by increased perspiration and dilated
pupils. Vomiting often signals the end of the nausea and the beginning of
the psychedelic effects. A peyote trip is reputed to be more of a "body"
trip than that produced by LSD. Typical LSD-like psychedelic effects
occursensation of weightlessness, depersonalization, alteration of time
perception, visual distortion and, in high doses, hallucinations. Many
people think that mescaline intensifies sensory perception more than does
LSD, especially perception of taste, touch, and color. Auditory, gustatory,
olfactory, and tactile hallucinations are more often reported with
mescaline and peyote than with LSD.
    Mescaline and peyote less often produce the emotional extremes common
to the LSD experience, although adverse reactions may sometimes result from
their use. Buyers of mescaline sulfate should be especially aware of the
possibility of adverse reactions, due to the probability that the drug
which has been purchased is not really mescaline.

    STP

    During the height of the psychedelic era in San Francisco, a new drug
was heralded as "more righteous than LSD." The new drug was nicknamed STP:
either "Serenity, Tranquility and Peace" or after the motor oil additive,
depending on who you're listening to. STP was first synthesized in 1964 by
Shulgin. It is more properly called DOM; the chemical name is
2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl methylphenethylamine. The average hallucinogenic
dose of STP is around 10 milligrams. In small doses (less than one
milligram) STP acts mainly as a euphoriant, similar to amphetamine,
although without the speed "edge." In large doses, STP has similarities to
both LSD and mescaline, but is more intense and longer lasting.
    STP became famous at the celebration of the summer solstice in San
Francisco's Golden Gate Park on June 21, 1967, when some 5000 high-dosage
tablets were given away by one of the local psychecelic missionaries. What
ensued is one of the most well-known stories of the hippie era. Hundreds of
people had experiences far more intense than they had ever had with LSD.
Most of them sat down, figured out what was happening, and spent the rest
of the day giggling and hugging people, staring into space, and saying
"wow." A high percentage, however, had extremely bad trips, and joined the
stream of people that poured into local free clinics, hospitals, and jails
over the next two days.
    The duration and intensity of the STP trip combine to account for the
unusual percentage of bad trips produced by the drug. Apparently, it is not
very rapidly metabolized in the body, therefore, the drug is present in the
body for a long time, and the experience may last 12 to 24 hours. There are
often after effects which have been reported to last up to seven days. An
extreme duration such as this is rare, but not impossible.
    Caution was at one time advised regarding administering Thorazine to
terminate bad STP experiences. Although it is still not advisable to ever
administer a sedative until "talking down" has been tried, tests have shown
that there is no evidence of potentiation between Thorazine and STP.

    MDA

    The chemical name for MDA is 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine. When this
drug first made its appearance on the illicit market, it was rumored to be
a mixture of mescaline and amphetaminethis confusion was furthered by its
nickname, "speed for lovers." MDA is, however, distinct from amphetamine
and mescaline. It is a derivative of iso-safrole, which comes from several
plant oils, especially sassafras. MDA is comparatively easy to synthesize,
and a high percentage of samples from the illicit market which have been
analyzed (60-65%) have been found to be authentic. This is not to say that
MDA is common, only that it is seldom misrepresented.
    The average dose of MDA is from 50 to 150 milligrams. The most
prominent effect of MDA is an amphetamine- like euphoria and warm
emotionality, without most of the speed tension. It rarely induces the
mystical experiences characteristic of other psychedelics. Feelings of
increased selfinsight and aesthetic enjoyment are commonly experienced.
Persons under the influence of MDA often focus on interpersonal
relationships and demonstrate an overwhelming desire to communicate with
other people. The drug frequently triggers warm reminiscences of past
events. Bad reactions, when they occur, - are marked mostly by simple
anxiety and rarely get out of control, except in the case of extreme
overdose. The effects begin 30 to 60 minutes after ingestion, peak about an
hour and a half later, and last for about 8 hours. A period of mental and
physical exhaustion may follow. Fatal overdose is very unlikely, but not
impossible. The only two documented cases occurred after intravenous
injection, and resulted from seizures and heart failure.

    MMDA, MDM, PMA, TMA, DOEM, DOB, Etc.

    There are almost infinite variations on the same theme. All of these
compounds are substituted amphetamines closely related to STP and MDA,
although they are closer in both chemical structure and effects to MDA. The
variation is usually in duration and intensity. All of these compounds are
comparatively easy to synthesize. As a result, however, of limited sales
appeal, these drugs appear on the illicit market only when some isolated
chemist decides to do something different for a change. MMDA is the most
widely known of this group, probably only because it is synthesized from a
chemical in nutmeg. It is often discussed in the mistaken belief that it
occurs in nutmeg.
    The few times that PMA, TMA, and DOB appeared in street drug analysis
statistics last year, they were misrepresented to be MDA. These three drugs
have serious overdose potential and often produce undesirable side effects,
such as extreme agitation, bladder problems, and temporary blindness. Most
of the adverse publicity which MDA has received, is the result of
misrepresenting PMA as MDA. At least ten deaths in the United States and
Canada have been linked to PMA overdose.

    Indole Derivative Hallucinogens

    Most of the specific hallucinogenic compounds are indole derivatives.
The class of indole hallucinogens are derivatives of tryptamine. These
tryptamine derivatives are sometimes substituted on the indole ring system.
In other cases, the tryptamine residue is part of a polycyclic ring system.
    Many of the known indole derivative hallucinogens occur in plants, and
were being used as psychedelics long before scientists were able to
identify, classify, and synthesize the active principles of the plants. LSD
is the only compound in this group which doesn't occur in nature. It,
however, differs only slightly from the active principle of the morning
glories, d-lysergic acid amide.

    LSD

    LSD-25, d-lysergic acid diethylamide tartrate, is synthesized from an
alkaloid found in the rye fungus, ergot (Claviceps purpurea). The number 25
merely indicates that this compound was the 25th ergot derivative
synthesized in the original series of experiments. The ergot fungus was
responsible for the mass outbreaks of ergotism in Europe in the Middle
Ages, when infected crops were accidentally made into bread. Ergotism was
called St. Anthony's Fire, and was often mistaken for bubonic plague.
Lysergic acid amide, the natural precursor of LSD, as well as other
"ergoline" alkaloids, have also been isolated from higher plants of the
morning glory family.
    LSD is one of the newest of the psychedelic drugs and one of the few
that doesn't occur naturally. It was synthesized in 1938, but it wasn't
until five years later that its Swiss discoverer, Dr. Albert Hofmann,
accidentally ingested a minute amount of the chemical and subsequently
experienced the first LSD trip.
    LSD is without a doubt the most potent of the known hallucinogens. LSD
doses are expressed in micrograms (millionths of a gram). The usual street
dose of LSD ranges between 50 and 150 micrograms. Like all of the
hallucinogens, the effects of LSD are highly dose-related.
    Low doses, between 25 and 50 micrograms, rarely produce much visual
distortion, although with the eyes closed there may be some imagery. The
effects most commonly reported are: restlessness, a heightened awareness of
objects and of nature, and an enhanced rapport with other persons. A
feeling of emotional clarity and of relaxation is likely to persist for
several hours after other effects are no longer noticeable, although this
period also may include restlessness and irritability.
    Medium doses, approximately 75 to 150 micrograms, commonly produce
spatial distortions, intense imagery when eyes are closed, intensified
emotions and unpredictable mood changes. Visual and auditory hallucinations
are often reported at the peak effect of this dosage (I to 4 hours after
ingestion). Visual hallucinations, when reported, usually include colorful
geometric figures and distortion of existing faces and objects. After the
peak, the remainder of the medium dosage experience closely follows the
low-dosage experience, until the subject is able to fall asleep.
    High doses, 200 to 500 micrograms may initially and finally resemble
the medium-dosage experiences described above. There is, however, usually a
period at the peak of the experience during which the subjective states are
not describable in terms of images or distortions. These states are
characterized by loss of ego boundaries coupled with feelings of euphoria
and philosophical insight, usually of a semi-religious nature.
Hallucinations at these dosages may include complete visions and images
formed out of nothing. These dosage levels are most likely to produce the
mystical and psychotic experiences described earlier in this publication.
    LSD is the least often misrepresented of the psychedelic drugs sold on
the illicit market. The problem with buying LSD on the illicit market is
uncertainty as to the dose. Further, some chemists are evidently in the
habit of adding byproducts of the synthesis into the final product, to
increase the weight. These byproducts are rarely very active, but may cause
unpleasant side effects such as nausea and muscle stiffness. (For
sociological history of LSD, refer to introductory section).

    D-Lysergic Acid Amide

    D-lysergic acid amide differs only slightly in chemical structure from
LSD, but is a much less potent hallucinogen. This chemical is found in many
varieties of the common morning glory (Rivea, Ipomcea, Argyreia,
Convolvulus species). This compound occurs in the leaves, seeds, and stem
of these plants, in a slightly higher concentration in the seeds. The seeds
of the morning glories Ipomoea violacea and Rivea corymbosa are believed to
have been the sacred "ololiuqui" of the ancient Aztecs. In modern times,
these plants have been observed in use by indigenous groups in the Mexican
state of Oaxaca, in curing ceremonies as a substitute for mushrooms in the
dry season.
    The effects of pure lysergic acid amide are similar to the effects of
LSD. Much of the variation between the effects of the morning glory seeds
and LSD may be explained by the fact that there are several other related
compounds present in the seeds, some of which are active. Nausea and
diarrhea are the most commonly reported somatic effects of the seeds, and
may be a result of any number of the ergoline compounds in the seeds. Some
varieties contain small concentrations of a central nervous system
stimulant. Other varieties produce a narcotic-like drowsiness, possibly due
to a glucoside present in the seeds. The hallucinogenic garden varieties of
I. violacea (Heavenly Blues, Pearly Gates, Wedding Bells, Summer Skies,
Flying Saucers) contain ergometrine, a strong hemostatic and uterotonic
used medicinally in childbirth. Some of the nonhallucinogenic compounds
found in morning glory seeds can be dangerously toxic in high doses.
    Commonly reported initial psychic effects include: listlessness,
apathy, irritability, and a general suspension of thought. These effects
appear about a half an hour after ingestion and last for several hours.
This period may be followed by a more pleasant state of elation, serenity,
well-being, and heightened emotionality similar to low dose LSD
experiences. Pure d-lysergic acid amide (not available on the illicit
market) may be able to produce a more intense experience, but as the
psychic effects of the seeds intensify with increasing dosages levels, the
somatic effects increase to discomfort, and may approach the level of a
toxic overdose.
    It has been suggested that one hundred morning glory seeds correspond
roughly to an LSD dose of 100 micrograms. This seems rather fanciful, but
may serve as a rough guide to dosage of morning glory seeds. Morning glory
seeds must be ground thoroughly before ingestion. If swallowed whole, poor
digestion and absorption will prevent any effects. Seeds sold commercially
in the U.S. should not be used, as these are coated with a fungicide that
causes vomiting and diarrhea when ingested. This compound is not
water-soluble, and hence cannot be washed away.
    The Baby Hawaiian Woodrose, Argyreia nervosa, is another member of the
morning glory family which is grown as an ornamental in the U.S., and whose
seeds contain hallucinogenic lysergic acid derivatives. The chemical
constituents and effects of Baby Hawaiian Woodrose seeds are very similar
to those of the common morning glory. Because they are larger, and because
the alkaloid content of A. nervosa is ten times as high as I. violacea,
only 4 to 8 Baby Hawaiian Woodrose seeds are needed to produce
hallucinosis. It is thought that if the white layer on the surface of the
seeds is not removed, users will experience vomiting. There is no evidence
that this layer is more toxic than the rest of the seed. As with the common
morning glory, these seeds are poisonous in high doses. Another plant,
Hawaiian Woodrose, Ipomoea tuberosa contains the same alkaloids, and dose
levels are comparable to the common morning glory.
    Morning glory and Woodrose seeds are legal to possess for normal
horticultural use, but according to strict interpretation of the laws, when
sold or consumed as a narcotic plant, or ground to a powder, they become
illegal.

    Psilocybin

    Psilocybin (4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) occurs naturally in
many mushrooms found in all parts of the world. Psilocybe caerulescens
(plus more than a dozen other members of the genus Psilocybe) and
Stropharia (Psilocybe) cubensis are commonly used in Mexico for their
hallucinogenic properties. The most commonly used psilocybin-containing
mushrooms in the U.S. are: Stropharia cubensis, Panaeolus subbalteatus, and
Psilocybe semilanceata. A number of other psilocybincontaining mushrooms
are found in the U.S., including: Psilocybe pelliculosa, P. cyanescens, P.
baeocystis, Conocybe cyanopus, and C. smithy. P. semilanceata also occurs
in Europe, and S. cubensis grows in tropical zones all over the world.
    When psilocybin occurs naturally, it is often accompanied by psilocin,
another indole derivative hallucinogen, which is somewhat more potent than
psilocybin but is found in much smaller quantities. The pharmacological
action of psilocin is identical to psilocybinthe evidence indicates that
psilocybin must be metabolized to psilocin before it can enter the brain
and produce hallucinogenic effects.
    Synthetic psilocybin was at one time legally manufactured, and
therefore available on the illicit drug market. But in the last few years
it has become one of the most popularly misrepresented of all
hallucinogenic substances. Samples sold as synthetic psilocybin usually
turn out to be low dosage LSD, if they turn out to be anything at all.
    Pure psilocin is even rarer on the street, because it is an extremely
unstable compound and will become inert if not maintained under controlled
conditions. Even though psilocybin-containing mushrooms are native to parts
of the U.S., most mushrooms sold on the street are of the grocery-store
species, usually the frozen variety with a little LSD dropped on them. True
psilocybin mushrooms needn't be frozen, as they will retain their potency
in the dry state. Another identifying characteristic is the bitter and
acrid taste of most psilocybin mushrooms; an alleged psilocybin mushroom
that tastes like it belongs on a pizza probably does.
    Psilocybin-containing mushrooms have been used for centuries in the
religious rites of some Mexican Indians. One of the religious cults of the
Aztec Indians of Mexico was based on the ritual consumption of psilocybin-
containing mushrooms called "teonanacatl" or "god's flesh." It has been
suggested, based on archaeological evidence, that the ancient Mayans in
Mexico and Guatemala practiced mushroom worship before 1000 B.C.
    The mushrooms are still used by the Mazatec, Zapotec, and other
indigenous groups in Mexico, particularly in the state of Oaxaca. Today the
mushrooms are used strictly for divination and curing by native curers. The
typical mushroom rites are not characterized by the kind of group
participation and interplay found in peyote rituals. In Mexican mushroom
rites, the curandero, or doctor is the main participant. In a prophecy
ritual, he or she usually takes the mushrooms alone for divination. In
curing rituals, the curandero acts as an interpreter of visions and as a
guide, in a doctor-patient relationship.
    The number of mushrooms taken at one time depends on the size and
species of mushroom. Doses will range from 1-5 grams dry weight (10-50
grams fresh). Common initial reactions include: muscular relaxation,
coldness of the limbs and abdomen, and dilation of the pupils. As the
effects become stronger, LSD-like mood changes and distortion of space and
time perception may occur. If the dose is large enough, effects will
include vivid visual and auditory distortion and hallucination and
synaesthesia. These reactions last 3 to 6 hours and may be followed by
after effects similar to LSD: lassitude, mental and physical depression.
    Subjectively, the psilocybin experience is believed by many people to
be more strongly visual than the experiences produced by other
hallucinogens. The drug has, in fact, a reputation for producing especially
vivid and colorful hallucinations. This belief is supported somewhat by the
fact that the mushrooms have traditionally been used specifically to induce
visions.
    Some species of mushrooms are deadly. When some mushrooms containing
psilocybin are bruised or broken open, the injured portions will turn blue
to purple within 30 minutes. This is not, however, positive proof that the
mushroom contains psilocybin, nor does this test prove that the mushroom is
not poisonous. Mushroom gatherers should either know the mushrooms they
intend to eat, or should have a reliable mushroom key or manual.

    DMT

    DMT (N,N-dimethyltryptamine) is produced synthetically, but is also
known to be a natural constituent of several plants found all over the
world. DMT is a very intense and fast-acting drug that produces effects of
short duration. It is sometimes called the "Businessman's Trip" reflecting
some fantasy concerning its possible use during a worker's lunch hour. It
is usually found as a liquid in which tobacco, marijuana, or parsley is
soaked prior to smoking. It is also seen as pink crystals. DMT is usually
smoked because it does not produce any effect when ingested orally by
itself.
    When smoked, the effects of DMT begin almost instantly. The initial
effects may include slight dizziness, with some minor increases in heart
and respiratory rates. Instead of the gradual buildup of intensity common
to the longer acting hallucinogens, DMT produces hallucinogenic effects
which peak in intensity within 3-10 minutes after smoking. These effects
may last up to 30 minutes, after which they subside as rapidly as they
began. Users of DMT will have no effects 30 to 60 minutes after smoking.
DMT produces visual and time sense distortions similar to LSD. Erratic mood
changes, mental disorientation, and LSD-like hallucinations are also
common. Generally, a DMT trip is comparable to an especially compact LSD
trip.
    Whereas LSD, mescaline, and psilocybin show cross tolerance, this does
not extend to DMT, even though DMT is structurally more similar to LSD and
psilocybin than is mescaline.
    DMT is one of the most easily synthesized hallucinogens, but its
availability is variable. A large amount will occasionally appear in one
part or another of the country, to be sold for a brief period of time. DMT
is not often misrepresented on the illicit drug market because it is not in
great demand, and those drugs that approximate the effects of DMT are more
expensive to synthesize than is DMT.

    DET

    Diethyltryptamine is a synthetic compound similar in chemical structure
to DMT. It has not yet been found to exist in plants, nor has it been found
to exist on the illicit drug market. DET is similar in effect to DMT, but
its hallucinogenic effect is not as strong and lasts somewhat longer. DET
has been used almost exclusively in laboratory studies. Because it is not
intensely hallucinogenic, it has been used in experiments as a psychic
energizer.

    Harmine

    The indole derivatives harmine, harmaline, and related compounds are
the main hallucinogenic constituents of a drink widely used among various
South American Indians in prophecy, divination and curing. In northwestern
Brazil and parts of Colombia the drink is called "caapi"; in Amazonian
Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador it is called "ayahuasca;" and along the eastern
foothills of the Andes in Colombia and Ecuador it is called "yaj" The
woody vines Banisteriopsis caupi and B. inebrians are the plants most
widely used.The bark (where the harmine concentration is highest) is
usually prepared in a boiled decoction. Other psychoactive plants are often
added to the drink to make it more potent. The most common additives are
Psychotria, Brunfelsia, and Datura species, and Banisteriopsis rusbyana,
which contains high concentrations of DMT. The first effect of the
preparation is almost instant vomiting, both by experienced and
inexperienced users. This is followed by a stuporous state in which vivid
hallucinations occur. Users experience slight drowsiness, vertigo, sluggish
speech and a stumbling walk. Harmine itself does not have much overdose
potential, but it has been reported that high doses of the puparid drink
produce convulsions.
    The Indian users consider the hallucinations to have prophetic
significance. Adverse reactions are considered bad omens. White settlers
and tourists in South America are reported to sometimes use the "caapi"
drink, but because of the toxicity apparently more often use low doses of
the plant as an intoxicant.
    Considering that Banisteriopsis plants are not found outside of South
America, it is amazing that "yaj" is so well known in the U.S. This is
undoubtedly due to the fact that this plant and beverage have been referred
to widely in the writings of W.S. Burroughs (as yage), and in a series of
sensationalistic news articles that attributed telepathic effects to
harmine (referred to as 'telepathine'). Banisteriopsis has only recently
been introduced to the United States and so far no harmine-containing
samples have been discovered among drugs sold on the illicit market. People
in the U.S. have reported being sold various samples of plant material as
"yaj," but the authenticity of these samples is dubious. Pure harmine
doesn't seem to have enough of a reputation in this country to warrant
misrepresentation.

    Isoxazole Derivative Hallucinogens

    There are only two known isoxazole hallucinogens, ibotenic acid and
muscimol. These compounds have so far been identified only in mushrooms of
the genus Amanita. Both have been identified in Amanita muscaria, A.
pantherina, and A. cothurnata. Much of the available literature claims that
these mushrooms are deadly poisonous, and they do have considerable
overdose potential, but they have known long use as hallucinogens. Amanita
muscaria is discussed in legends and folk tales throughout the world, and
Amanita mushroom motifs are widely represented in art. There is now a
consensus among scholars that A. muscaria was the "Some" of the Aryan
culture which settled in the Indus River Valley in what is now Afghanistan.
More than 100 of the hymns in the 3500 year old Rig Veda (the earliest
Indian holy book) are devoted to the praises of Soma. Use of A. muscaria as
a shamanistic and recreational inebriant was common among Siberian tribes,
until mushroom use was supplanted by the use of vodka, introduced by
Russian traders in the early 20th century.
    Muscimol is considered to be the main psychoactive agent responsible
forAmanita intoxication. It is an alkaloid, but differs greatly from the
major hallucinogens in chemical structure. The Amanita mushrooms which
contain isoxazole derivatives may not contain muscimol in the natural
state. The mushrooms naturally contain ibotenic acid, which degrades to
muscimol when ingested.
    Muscimole is an analog of the neurohumor - aminobutyric acid (GABA),
and is thought to produce hallucinogenic effects by interfering with GABA
metabolism. Ibotenic acid is an analog of another neurohumor, glutamate,
and may in itself produce hallucinogenic effects by mimicing glutamate.
Like the sodium salt of glutamate (monosodium glutamate), ibotenic acid is
a flavor enhancer.
    Since the Amanita mushrooms have considerably more overdose potential
than the other organic hallucinogens, dosages must be determined with extra
caution. A. pantherina contains about twice as much ibotenic acid and
muscimol as A. muscaria, and is twice as potent and twice as toxic. No more
than one-quarter cup of chopped A. pantherina should be considered "safe"
at this time The effects produced by Amanita mushrooms last from six to
eight hours. Effects include visual distortions and auditory and visual
hallucinations. Some users experience side-effects of nausea, muscle
twitching and fatigue.
    Although A. muscaria is fairly common in some areas, it is not always
easily located. It grows in a mycorrhizal association with evergreens and
hardwoods, often beneath layers of leaves or needles. Amanita mushrooms
have never been observed on the commercial illicit market.

    Other Substances Used as Hallucinogens

    Although the drugs described in this section are sometimes used as
hallucinogens, their hallucinogenic properties are secondary to other
pharmacological actions. Sometimes, hallucinosis may be simply a side
effect of delerium, toxic poisoning, or sensory deprivation. These drugs do
not show structured similarities to known neurohumors or to the main
classes of hallucinogens (with the exception of ibogaine, which is an
indole derivative). The only thing the drugs discussed in this section have
in common is that they are alkaloids (with the exception of THC). Actually,
any number of drugs, such as alcohol, are known to produce hallucinosis in
some circumstances, but have been excluded from this section because they
are not used with the specific intention of inducing hallucinations.

    Atropine, Scopolamine: The Belladonna Alkaloids

    Atropa belladonna or "deadly nightshade," indigenous to Europe, has a
long history of use as an ingredient in "witches" potions and ointments.
The tropane alkaloids, atropine (and its isomer hyoscyamine) and
scopolamine are found in this plant, and in dozens of species of plants in
the genera Datura, Hyoscyamus, and other genera of the family Solanaceae.
Throughout history, these plants have been used as medicines, poisons, and
sacraments. They have been used for purposes as diverse as divining the
future, treating eye disorders, and poisoning people.
    In North America, these alkaloids are commonly found in a number of
plants of the genus Datura. The early white settlers on this continent
called a common species, D. stramonium, "Jamestown weed", which has been
corrupted to "jimson weed." Datura species are also called "loco weed" and
"devil's weed." Native American groups from the eastern U.S. were known to
use Datura species for their hallucinogenic effects, but the centers of
ritual use of Datura in the New World are the American southwest and Mexico
(where the plants are called "toloache") and South America.
    Scopolamine has achieved semi-notoriety as the "truth serum" of spy
novels and movies. Scopolamine by itself, however, does not seem to be
hallucinogenic, and certainly not of sufficient intensity to account for
the effects of these solanaceous plants. There may be some synergistic
activity between alkaloids. The fine line separating an hallucinogenic dose
from a toxic dose may indicate that some of the hallucinogenic activity may
be simply a symptom of toxic poisoning.
    Native American users were known to smoke the leaves, drink a decoction
of various parts of Datura plants, or sniff or ingest a powder prepared by
grinding the roots. Generally, use of Datura plants has been confined to
religious ritual, as the effects are not very pleasant. Among some Mexican
indigenous groups who continue to use Datura species, it is believed that
the plants are inhabited by malevolent spirits, making them ideal for use
in casting evil spells.
    The effects begin rather rapidly, usually within twenty minutes or so.
The initial reactions include nausea, diarrhea, alternating fever and
chills, and a dry mouth. Soon the user will begin to experience some loss
of motor coordination and a feeling of depression. As the effects build up,
there may be a high degree of excitation and, usually, feelings of
agitation. Visual distortion may follow, and, if the dose is large enough,
hallucinations may result. The hallucinations may be more intense than is
experienced with LSD, and may last up to two days.
    Extreme nervousness, often leading to panic, and intense disorientation
accompany the hallucinations. High doses may produce convulsions which may
lead to coma and death. Atropa and Datura plants are very dangerous. The
use of these plants has been growing in the U.S., apparently having been
popularized by the Castaneda books. Already, some deaths have been
reported, resulting from ingestion of Datura species by would-be
recreational users.
    There are a number of different pharmaceutical preparations which
contain atropine and/or scopolamine. These are valued in medicine because
of the wide range of reactions they cause, but when used in high doses for
"recreational" purposes, are just as much a bummer as the plant versions.

    Ibogaine

    Even though ibogaine is an indole derivative and is sometimes used as
an hallucinogen, it is not principally hallucinogenic. The most prominent
effect of ibogaine is intense stimulation of the central nervous system.
Hallucinogenic effects are secondary to stimulation, and appear only with
high dose levels. Ibogaine has also been in limited use as a surface
anesthetic, with effects similar to cocaine.
    Ibogaine is the principal alkaloid of the iboga plant, Tabernanthe
iboga, which is indigenous to Central Africa. French and Belgian explorers
began to report the legendary effects of the iboga plant in the middle of
the last century. Even then it had a reputation as a powerful stimulant and
aphrodisiac. The plant reputedly doubled muscular strength and endurance,
and enabled hunters to remain motionless for hours while stalking game.
    Iboga is currently widely used in parts of the Congo and Gabon. It is
used as an hallucinogenic sacrament by several important religious sects,
and is employed in the initiation rites of a number of secret societies.
Outside of religious use, iboga is prized more as a stimulant than for its
hallucinogenic properties, because doses high enough to produce
hallucinosis cause the unpleasant side effects common to overdose of a
stimulant. Iboga-induced hallucinations occur in a tense epileptic-like
state; the ravings that occur in this state are considered by religious
users to be prophetic. In toxic doses, iboga produces convulsions,
paralysis and arrest of respiration.

    Nutmeg

    Nutmeg is the seed of a tropical evergreen tree, Myristicafragrens
(mace is the aril or seed covering, and has similar properties). This tree
is indigenous to the East Indies, and was first brought to Europe by the
Dutch in the 1600s. Nutmeg is most commonly used as a spice. In 16th
century Europe, nutmeg was also used as a sedative and an aphrodisiac.
Today, nutmeg is used as a drug only by prisoners and others who have
limited access to more desireable mind-altering substances.
    The usual dose is around 20 grams of ground nutmegabout a matchbox
full. Many people find it difficult to swallow a sufficient quantity to
produce any effects. Severe nausea and diarrhea are usually the first
effects of the drug. Soon after, the mouth and throat become dry, the skin
flushes, and the eyes become red.
    Occasionally, nutmeg may act as a stimulant, but more often, the user
will feel heavy, intoxicated, and unable to do anything but lie down. The
user may appear to be drunk. The emotional state of the user may vary from
a dreamy peace of mind to hilarity to panic. There is usually a distortion
of time and space perception, and a feeling of detachment from reality. It
takes a near lethal dose to produce hallucinogenic phenomena. Death by
overdose usually results from liver failure. The trip is followed by a few
hours of hangover, often accompanied by a severe headache.
    There is quite a lot of uncertainty as to what are the main
psychotropic substances in Nutmeg. At one time it was believed that
myristicin was the main active ingredient, probably because MMDA had been
synthesized from this compound. Nutmeg does not contain MMDA. It is
currently thought that the effects of nutmeg are produced by some kind of
synergistic activity between several compounds in nutmeg, probably
myristicin, elemicin, and safrole.
    Nutmeg oils tend to increase the deposition of fat in the liver.
Safrole has been proven to be carcinogenic and toxic to the liver. Persons
with personal or family histories of cancer or liver disorder are advised
against using psychedelic quantities of nutmeg. Prolonged or excessive use
is dangerous for anyone.

    PCP

    PCP (phencyclidine hydrochloride) was originally developed and marketed
as a surgical anesthetic and as a tranquilizer. It has since been declared
unfit for human use, and is now used legally only as an immobilizer and
anesthetic for large animals. PCP made its public debut as a recreational
drug in the summer of 1967 in San Francisco, as "The Peace Pill." This drug
soon gained a bad reputation as people became aware of its unattractive
characteristics. It is now rarely sold on the illicit market under its own
name. It is, however, often sold on the illicit market under aliases
because it is cheap and easy to manufacture.
    The most popular name for PCP is "Angel Dust," which is a preparation
of marijuana or parsley saturated with PCP and meant to be smoked. Angel
Dust is often sold to the unwary as a special strain of "super weed."
(Marijuana which has been adulterated with PCP is easily identified by the
chemical odor which it produces upon burning.) PCP is often sold as THCa
compound which is virtually nonexistent on the illicit drug market.
    Most of the illicit "THC" sold in the U.S. is actually PCP. PCP and
PCP/LSD combinations are also sometimes sold as alleged mescaline and
psilocybin.
    Anesthetic doses of PCP induce a cataleptic state in which the subject
appears to be awake, but is dissociated from the environment, is
unresponsive to pain, and has no subsequent memory of the state. Emergence
from the anesthetized state may produce symptoms similar to those often
seen with lower doses: agitation, excitement, disorientation, and rarely,
hallucinations, although some people recall the emergence period as
"pleasant."
    In normal street doses, PCP may produce a light, carefree feeling with
slight visual distortion. The trip generally lasts from 4 to 6 hours. Most
users describe an increased sense of mind/body separation and isolation
from the world. Often, users report that the body feels numb. Emotional
states may range from joy to dreaminess to severe agitation and paranoia.
Thee occasional hallucinosis reported with PCP use is thought to be a
result of introceptive sensory blocking actions, comparable in results to
extroceptive sensory deprivation, which has also been shown to be capable
of producing hallucinations.
    PCP has most of the disadvantages of both downs and hallucinogens. This
drug has serious potential for overdose, even when smoked. It shows a
barbiturate-like synergism with alcohol, and several overdose deaths have
been attributed to this combination. Errors in synthesis of this drug in
illicit labs can be extremely dangerous. Whereas similar errors in
synthesis of other hallucinogens merely result in lowered potency, or at
most a combination which produces nausea, poorly synthesized PCP has
produced symptoms such as convulsions, coughing of blood, and other
reactions which have sometimes resulted in hospitalization.
    The most conspicuous disadvantage of PCP use is the high percentage of
bad trips which it produces. These bad trips are characterized by the kind
of paranoia that occurs with long-term use of amphetamines. Persons on bad
trips from PCP are hard to relate to, and hard to handle. It may be
necessary to restrain such persons, to prevent them from hurting
themselves. As mentioned previously, the subject may mistake any
restraining action for assault. It may be necessary to take a PCP user to a
hospital, and it is advisable to inform the doctors that PCP was taken,
because PCP does not react well with some of the drugs which are commonly
used to abort bad trips (especially Thorazine and other phenothiazine
tranquilizers).

    THC

    THC (9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol) is thought to be the main
psychoactive ingredient of the marijuana plant, Cannabis sativa. 9-THC is
one of many cannabinols in marijuana, others may also be active.
    THC differs greatly in chemical structure from the other psychedelics.
It is the only major psychedelic that doesn't contain nitrogen. Unlike the
alkaloidal hallucinogens of the indole, phenethylamine, and isoxazole
class, THC possesses no structural relationships to the known neurohumoral
factors in vertebrate brains.
    Whether or not THC can be called an hallucinogen depends on the
definition of the word. An experience with THC is roughly comparable to
eating a large quantity of marijuana. The euphoric/tranquilizing aspects of
pure synthetic THC are much more prominent than hallucinogenic aspects.
Natural Cannabis preparations are even less specific in their actions.
Doses at which hallucinations are most likely to occur are generally
considered to be marijuana overdoses, characterized by occasional panic
reactions, but more often by a state difficult to distinguish from sleep. A
lethal dose is not known to have occurred in human beings.
    In spite of the fact that many drug dealers sell compounds alleged to
be THC, there have hardly ever been samples of real synthetic THC found in
street drug analysis. The major reason for its scarcity on the illicit
market is that, using current methods, manufacture of synthetic THC
requires expensive equipment, is complicated, and costs $10 - $20 per dose.
    Substances showing THC content occasionally appear in street drug
analysis, but these are invariably natural marijuana preparations, such as
hashish crushed in a capsule, or hash oil. The majority of "THC" samples
turn out to be PCP, PCP/LSD, or combinations of PCP and other drugs.

    Suggested Reading List

    1. Hallucinogenic Plants of North America, Ott, J., Wingbow Press,
       Berkeley, 1976.
    2. The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens, Schultes, R.E., and
       Hofmann. A., C.C. Thomas, Springfield, 1973.
    3. Hallucinogens and Shamanism, Harner, M., (ed.), Oxford University
       Press, Oxford, 1973.
    4. Flesh of the Gods, Furst, P., (ed.), Praeger, New York, 1972.
    5. The Hallucinogens, Hoffer, A., and Osmond, H., Academic Press, New
       York, 1967.
    6. Ethnobotanical Search forPsychoactive Drugs, Efron, D., et al,
       (eds.), U.S. Public Health Service Publication No. 1645, Washington,
       1967.
    7. Licit and Illicit Drugs, Brecher, E., et al, (eds.), Little, Brown,
       and Co., Ontario, 1972.
    8. LSD, Man and Society. DeBold, R.C. and Leaf, R.C. (eds.), Wesleyan
       University Press, Middletown,Conn., 1967.
    
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