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From: "James M. Atkinson" <jm..._at_tscm.com>
Subject: NSA Burns at the Stake
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What a country!!!
Only in the United States could a small number of
citizens use the legal system to shutdown a
multi-billion dollar illegal program such as this.
-jma
http://www.mied.uscourts.gov/eGov/taylorpdf/06%2010204.pdf
UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
EASTERN DISTRICT OF MICHIGAN
SOUTHERN DIVISION
AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION;
AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION
FOUNDATION; AMERICAN CIVIL
LIBERTIES UNION OF MICHIGAN;
COUNCIL ON AMERICAN-ISLAMIC Case No. 06-CV-10204
RELATIONS; COUNCIL ON AMERICAN
ISLAMIC RELATIONS MICHIGAN; Hon. Anna Diggs Taylor
GREENPEACE, INC.; NATIONAL
ASSOCIATION OF CRIMINAL DEFENSE
LAWYERS; JAMES BAMFORD; LARRY
DIAMOND; CHRISTOPHER HITCHENS;
TARA MCKELVEY; and BARNETT R. RUBIN,
Plaintiffs,
v.
NATIONAL SECURITY AGENCY / CENTRAL SECURITY
SERVICE; and LIEUTENANT GENERAL KEITH B.
ALEXANDER, in his official capacity as Director
of the National Security Agency and Chief of the Central Security Service,
Defendants.
_______________________________________________________/
MEMORANDUM OPINION
I. Introduction
This is a challenge to the legality of a secret
program (hereinafter “TSP”) undisputedly
inaugurated by the National Security Agency
(hereinafter “NSA”) at least by 2002 and
continuing today, which intercepts without
benefit of warrant or other judicial approval,
prior or subsequent, the international telephone
and internet communications of numerous persons
and organizations within this country. The TSP
has been acknowledged by this Administration to
have been authorized by the President’s secret
order during 2002 and reauthorized at least thirty times since.1
Plaintiffs are a group of persons and
organizations who, according to their affidavits,
are defined by the Foreign Intelligence
Surveillance Act (hereinafter “FISA”) as “U.S.
persons.”2 They conducted regular international
telephone and internet communications for various
uncontestedly legitimate reasons including
journalism, the practice of law, and
scholarship. Many of their communications are
and have been with persons in the Middle
East. Each Plaintiff has alleged a “well founded
belief” that he, she, or it, has been subjected
to Defendants’ interceptions, and that the TSP
not only injures them specifically and directly,
but that the TSP substantially chills and impairs
their constitutionally protected
communications. Persons abroad who before the
program spoke with them by telephone or internet will no longer do so.
Plaintiffs have alleged that the TSP violates
their free speech and associational rights, as
guaranteed by the First Amendment of the United
States Constitution; their privacy rights, as
guaranteed by the Fourth Amendment of the United
States Constitution; the principle of the
Separation of Powers because the TSP has been
authorized by the President in excess of his
Executive Power under Article II of the United
States Constitution, and that it specifically
violates the statutory limitations placed upon
such interceptions by the Congress in FISA
because it is conducted without observation of
any of the procedures required by law, either statutory or Constitutional.
Before the Court now are several motions filed by
both sides. Plaintiffs have requested a
1Available at
http://www.white-house.gov//news/releases/2005/12/20051219-2.html
2Pub. L. 95-511, Title I, 92 Stat 1976 (Oct. 25,
1978), codified as amended at 50 U.S.C. §§ 1801 et seq.
permanent injunction, alleging that they sustain
irreparable damage because of the continued
existence of the TSP. Plaintiffs also request a
Partial Summary Judgment holding that the TSP
violates the Administrative Procedures Act
(“APA”); the Separation of Powers doctrine; the
First and Fourth Amendments of the United States
Constitution, and the statutory law.
Defendants have moved to dismiss this lawsuit, or
in the alternative for Summary Judgment, on the
basis of the state secrets evidentiary privilege
and Plaintiffs’ lack of standing.
II. State Secrets Privilege
Defendants argue that the state secrets privilege
bars Plaintiffs’ claims because Plaintiffs cannot
establish standing or a prima facie case for any
of their claims without the use of state secrets.
Further, Defendants argue that they cannot defend
this case without revealing state secrets. For
the reasons articulated below, the court rejects
Defendants’ argument with respect to Plaintiffs’
claims challenging the TSP. The court, however,
agrees with Defendants with respect to
Plaintiffs’ data- mining claim and grants
Defendants’ motion for summary judgment on that claim.
The state secrets privilege is an evidentiary
rule developed to prevent the disclosure of
information which may be detrimental to national
security. There are two distinct lines of cases
covering the privilege. In the first line of
cases the doctrine is more of a rule of
“non-justiciability because it deprives courts of
their ability to hear suits against the
Government based on covert espionage
agreements.” El-Masri v. Tenet, 2006 WL 1391390
at 7 (E.D.Va., 2006). The seminal decision in
this line of cases is Totten v. United States 92
U.S. 105 (1875). In Totten, the plaintiff brought
suit against the government seeking payment for
espionage services he had provided during the
Civil War. In affirming the dismissal of the case, Justice Field wrote:
The secrecy which such contracts impose precludes
any action for their enforcement. The publicity
produced by an action would itself
3
be a breach of a contract of that kind, and thus
defeat a recovery. Totten, 92 U.S. at 107. The
Supreme Court reaffirmed Totten in Tenet v. Doe,
544 U.S. 1, (2005). In Tenet, the plaintiffs, who
were former Cold War spies, brought estoppel and
due process claims against the United States and
the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency
(hereinafter “CIA”) for the CIA’s alleged failure
to provide them with the assistance it had
allegedly promised in return for their espionage
services. Tenet, 544 U.S. at 3. Relying heavily
on Totten, the Court held that the plaintiffs
claims were barred. Delivering the opinion for a
unanimous Court, Chief Justice
Rehnquist wrote: We adhere to Totten. The state
secrets privilege and the more frequent use of in
camera judicial proceedings simply cannot provide
the absolute protection we found necessary in
enunciating the Totten rule. The possibility that
a suit may proceed and an espionage relationship
may be revealed, if the state secrets privilege
is found not to apply, is unacceptable: “Even a
small chance that some court will order
disclosure of a source’s identity could well
impair intelligence gathering and cause sources
to ‘close up like a clam.’” (citations omitted). Tenet, 544 U.S. at =
11.
The second line of cases deals with the exclusion
of evidence because of the state secrets
privilege. In United States v. Reynolds, 345 U.S.
1 (1953), the plaintiffs were the widows of three
civilians who died in the crash of a B-29
aircraft. Id. at 3-4. The plaintiffs brought
suit under the Tort Claims Act and sought the
production of the Air Force’s official accident
investigation report and the statements of the
three surviving crew members. Id. The
Government asserted the states secret privilege
to resist the discovery of this information,
because the aircraft in question and those aboard
were engaged in a highly secret mission of the
Air Force. Id. at 4. In discussing the state
secrets privilege and its application, Chief Justice Vinson stated:
The privilege belongs to the Government and must be asserted by it;
4
it can neither be claimed nor waived by a private
party. It is not to be lightly invoked. There
must be formal claim of privilege, lodged by the
head of the department which has control over the
matter, after actual personal consideration by
that officer. The court itself must determine
whether the circumstances are appropriate for the
claim of privilege, and yet do so without forcing
a disclosure of the very thing the privilege is
designed to protect. Reynolds, 345 U.S. at 8.
The Chief Justice further wrote: In each case,
the showing of necessity which is made will
determine how far the court should probe in
satisfying itself that the occasion for invoking
the privilege is appropriate. Where there is a
strong showing of necessity, the claim of
privilege should not be lightly accepted, but
even the most compelling necessity cannot
overcome the claim of privilege if the court is
ultimately satisfied that military
secrets are at stake. Reynolds, 345 U.S. at 11.
The Court sustained the Government’s claim of
privilege, finding the plaintiffs’ “necessity”
for the privileged information was “greatly
minimized” by the fact that the plaintiffs had an
available alternative. Reynolds, 345 U.S. at 11.
Moreover, the Court found that there was nothing
to suggest that the privileged information had a
“causal connection with the accident” and that
the plaintiffs could “adduce the essential facts
as to causation without resort to material
touching upon military secrets.” Id.
In Halkin v. Helms, 598 F.2d 1 (D.C.Cir.1978)
(Halkin I ), the District of Columbia Circuit
Court applied the holding in Reynolds in a case
in which the plaintiffs, Vietnam War protestors,
alleged that the defendants, former and present
members of the NSA, the CIA, Defense Intelligence
Agency, the Federal Bureau of Investigation and
the Secret Service engaged in warrantless
surveillance of their international wire, cable
and telephone communications with the cooperation
of telecommunications providers. Id. at 3. The
telecommunications providers were also named as
defendants. Id. The plaintiffs specifically
challenged the legality of two separate NSA
surveillance operations undertaken from 1967 to
1973 named operation MINARET and operation SHAMROCK.3 Id. at 4.
The Government asserted the state secrets
privilege and moved for dismissal for the
following reasons: (1) discovery would “confirm
the identity of individuals or organizations
whose foreign communications were acquired by
NSA”; (2) discovery would lead to the disclosure
of “dates and contents of such communications”;
or (3) discovery would “divulge the methods and
techniques by which the communications were
acquired.” Halkin, 598 F.2d at 4-5. The district
court held that the plaintiffs’ claims against
operation MINARET had to be dismissed “because
the ultimate issue, the fact of acquisition,
could neither be admitted nor denied.” Id. at 5.
The district court, however, denied the
Government’s motion to dismiss the plaintiffs’
claims regarding operation SHAMROCK, because it
“thought congressional committees investigating
intelligence matters had revealed so much
information about operation SHAMROCK that such a
disclosure would pose no threat to the NSA mission.” Id. at 10.
On appeal, the District of Columbia Circuit Court
affirmed the district court’s dismissal of the
plaintiffs’ claims with respect to operation
MINARET but reversed the court’s ruling with
respect to operation SHAMROCK. In reversing the
district court ruling regarding SHAMROCK, the circuit court stated:
. . . we think the affidavits and testimony
establish the validity of the state secrets claim
with respect to both SHAMROCK and MINARET
acquisitions; our reasoning applies to both.
There is a “reasonable danger”, (citation
omitted) that confirmation or denial that a
particular plaintiff's communications have been acquired would
3Operation MINARET was part of the NSA’s regular
intelligence activity in which foreign electronic
signals were monitored. Operation SHAMROCK
involved the processing of all telegraphic
traffic leaving or entering the United States.
Hepting v. AT & T Corp 2006 WL 2038464 (N.D.Cal.2006) quoting Halkin.
disclose NSA capabilities and other valuable
intelligence information to a sophisticated
intelligence analyst. Halkin, 598 F.2d at 10. The
case was remanded to the district court and it
dismissed the plaintiffs’ claims against the NSA
and the individuals connected with the NSA’s
alleged monitoring. Halkin v. Helms, 690 F.2d
977, 984 (D.C. Cir.1982) (Halkin II). In Halkin
II, 690 F.2d 977, the court addressed plaintiffs’
remaining claims against the CIA, which the
district court dismissed because of the state
secrets privilege. In affirming the district
court’s ruling, the District of Columbia Circuit
stated: It is self-evident that the disclosures
sought here pose a “reasonable danger” to the
diplomatic and military interests of the United
States. Revelation of particular instances in
which foreign governments assisted the CIA in
conducting surveillance of dissidents could
strain diplomatic relations in a number of
ways-by generally embarrassing foreign
governments who may wish to avoid or may even
explicitly disavow allegations of CIA or United
States involvements, or by rendering foreign
governments or their officials subject to
political or legal action by those among their
own citizens who may have been subjected to
surveillance in the course of dissident activity. Halkin II, 690 F.2d at 9=
93.
Ellsberg v. Mitchell, 709 F.2d 51 (D.C. Cir.1983)
was yet another case where the District of
Columbia Circuit dealt with the state secrets
privilege being raised in the defense of a claim
of illegal wiretapping. In Ellsberg, the
plaintiffs, the defendants and attorneys in the
“Pentagon Papers” criminal prosecution brought
suit when, during the course of that litigation,
they discovered “that one or more of them had
been the subject of warrantless electronic
surveillance by the federal Government.” Id. at
51. The defendants admitted to two wiretaps but
refused to respond to some of the plaintiffs’
interrogatories, asserting the state secrets
privilege. Id. at 54. The plaintiffs sought an
order compelling the information and the district
court denied the motion, sustaining the
Government’s assertion of the state secrets
privilege. Id. at 56. Further, the court
dismissed the plaintiffs’ claims that pertained
“to surveillance of their foreign
communications.” Ellsberg v. Mitchell, 709 F.2d at 56.
On appeal, the District of Columbia Circuit
reversed the district court with respect to the
plaintiffs’ claims regarding the Government’s
admitted wiretaps, because there was no reason to
“suspend the general rule that the burden is on
those seeking an exemption from the Fourth
Amendment warrant requirement to show the need
for it.” Ellsberg, 709 F.2d at 68. With respect
to the application of the state secrets privilege, the court stated:
When properly invoked, the state secrets
privilege is absolute. No competing public or
private interest can be advanced to compel
disclosure of information found to be protected
by a claim of privilege. However, because of the
broad sweep of the privilege, the Supreme Court
has made clear that “[i]t is not to be lightly
invoked.” Thus, the privilege may not be used to
shield any material not strictly necessary to
prevent injury to national security; and,
whenever possible, sensitive information must be
disentangled from nonsensitive information to
allow for the release of the latter. Ellsberg, 709 F.2d at 56.
In Kasza v. Browner, 133 F.3d 1159 (9th
Cir.1998), the plaintiffs, former employees at a
classified United States Air Force facility,
filed suit against the Air Force and the
Environmental Protection Agency under the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, alleging
violations at the classified facility. Id. at
1162. The district court granted summary judgment
against the plaintiffs, because discovery of
information necessary for the proof of the
plaintiffs’ claims was impossible due to the
state secrets privilege. Id. In affirming the
district court’s grant of summary judgment
against one of the plaintiffs, the Ninth Circuit stated:
Not only does the state secrets privilege bar
[the plaintiff] from establishing her prima facie
case on any of her eleven claims, but any further
proceeding in this matter would jeopardize
national security. No protective procedure can
salvage [the plaintiff’s] suit. Kasza, 133 F.3d at 1170.
The Kasza court also explained that “[t]he
application of the state secrets privilege can
have . . . three effects.” Kasza, 133 F.3d at
1166. First, when the privilege is properly
invoked “over particular evidence, the evidence
is completely removed from the case.” Id. The
plaintiff’s case, however, may proceed “based on
evidence not covered by the privilege.” Id. “If .
. . the plaintiff cannot prove the prima facie
elements of her claim with nonprivileged
evidence, then the court may dismiss her claim as
it would with any plaintiff who cannot prove her
case.” Id. Second, summary judgement may be
granted, “if the privilege deprives the defendant
of information that would otherwise give the
defendant a valid defense to the claim.” Id.
Lastly, “notwithstanding the plaintiff's ability
to produce nonprivileged evidence, if the ‘very
subject matter of the action’ is a state secret,
then the court should dismiss the plaintiff's
action based solely on the invocation of the state secrets privilege.” Id=
.
The Sixth Circuit delivered its definitive
opinion regarding the states secrets privilege,
in Tenenbaum v. Simonini, 372 F.3d 776 (6th Cir.
2004). In that case, the plaintiffs sued the
United States and various employees of federal
agencies, alleging that the defendants engaged in
criminal espionage investigation of the
plaintiff, David Tenenbaum, because he was
Jewish. Id. at 777. The defendants moved for
summary judgment, arguing that they could not
defend themselves against the plaintiffs’ “claims
without disclosing information protected by the
state secrets doctrine.” Id. The district court
granted the defendants’ motion and the Sixth Circuit affirmed stating:
We further conclude that Defendants cannot defend
their conduct with respect to Tenenbaum without
revealing the privileged information. Because
the state secrets doctrine thus deprives
Defendants of a valid defense to the Tenenbaums’
claims, we find that the district court properly
dismissed the claims. Tenenbaum, 372 F.3d at 777.
Predictably, the War on Terror of this
administration has produced a vast number of
cases, in which the state secrets privilege has
been invoked.4 In May of this year, a district
court in the Eastern District of Virginia
addressed the state secrets privilege in El-Masri
v. Tenet, 2006 WL 1391390, (E.D. Va. May 12,
2006). In El Masri, the plaintiff, a German
citizen of Lebanese descent, sued the former
director of the CIA and others, for their alleged
involvement in a program called Extraordinary
Rendition. Id. at 1. The court dismissed the
plaintiff’s claims, because they could not be
fairly litigated without the disclosure of state secrets.5 Id. at 6.
In Hepting v. AT & T Corp., 2006 WL 2038464,
(E.D. Cal. June 20, 2006), which is akin to our
inquiry in the instant case, the plaintiffs
brought suit, alleging that AT & T Corporation
was collaborating with the NSA in a warrantless
surveillance program, which illegally tracked the
domestic and foreign communications and
communication records of millions of
Americans. Id. at 1. The United States
intervened and moved that the case be dismissed
based on the state secrets privilege. Id. Before
applying the privilege to the plaintiffs’ claims,
the court first examined the information that had
already been exposed to the public, which is
essentially the same information that has been
revealed in the instant case. District Court
Judge Vaughn Walker found that the Government had admitted:
. . . it monitors “contents of communications
where * * * one party to the communication is
outside the United States and the government has
a reasonable basis to conclude that one party to
the communication is a member of al Qaeda,
affiliated with al Qaeda, or a member of an
organization affiliated with al Qaeda, or working
in support of al Qaeda.” (citations omitted). Hepting, 2006 WL
4In Terkel v. AT & T Corp., 2006 WL 2088202 (N.D.
Ill. July 25, 2006), the plaintiffs alleged that
AT&T provided information regarding their
telephone calls and internet communications to
the NSA. Id. at 1. District Court Judge Matthew
F. Kennely dismissed the case because the state
secrets privilege made it impossible for the
plaintiffs to establish standing. Id. at 20.
5Further, the court was not persuaded by the
plaintiff’s argument that the privilege was
negated because the Government had admitted that
the rendition program existed because it found
the Government’s admissions to be without details.
2038464, at 19. Accordingly Judge Walker reasoned
that “[b]ased on these public disclosures,” the
court could not “conclude that the existence of a
certification regarding the ‘communication
content’ program is a state secret.” Id.
Defendants’ assertion of the privilege without
any request for answers to any discovery has
prompted this court to first analyze this case
under Totten/Tenet, since it appears that
Defendants are arguing that this case should not
be subject to judicial review. As discussed
supra, the Totten/Tenet cases provide an absolute
bar to any kind of judicial review. Tenet, 544
U.S. at 8. This rule should not be applied in the
instant case, however, since the rule applies to
actions where there is a secret espionage
relationship between the Plaintiff and the
Government. Id. at 7-8. It is undisputed that
Plaintiffs’ do not claim to be parties to a
secret espionage relationship with Defendants.
Accordingly, the court finds the Totten/Tenet
rule is not applicable to the instant case. The
state secrets privilege belongs exclusively to
the Executive Branch and thus, it is
appropriately invoked by the head of the
Executive Branch agency with control over the
secrets involved. Reynolds, 345 U.S. at 1. In the
instant case, the court is satisfied that the
privilege was properly invoked. Defendants’
publicly-filed affidavits from Director of
National Intelligence John D. Negroponte and
Signal Intelligence Director, NSA Major General
Richard J. Quirk, set forth facts supporting the
Government’s contention that the state secrets
privilege and other legal doctrines required
dismissal of the case. Additionally, Defendants
filed classified versions of these declarations
ex parte and in camera for this court’s review.
Defendants also filed ex parte and in camera
versions of its brief along with other classified
materials, further buttressing its assertion of
the privilege. Plaintiffs concede that the public
declaration from Director Negroponte satisfies
the procedural requirements set forth in
Reynolds. Therefore, this court concludes that
the privilege has been appropriately invoked.
Defendants argue that Plaintiffs’ claims must be
dismissed because Plaintiffs cannot establish
standing or a prima facie case for any of its
claims without the disclosure of state
secrets. Moreover, Defendants argue that even if
Plaintiffs are able to establish a prima facie
case without revealing protected information,
Defendants would be unable to defend this case
without the disclosure of such
information. Plaintiffs argue that Defendants’
invocation of the state secrets privilege is
improper with respect to their challenges to the
TSP, since no additional facts are necessary or
relevant to the summary adjudication of this
case. Alternatively, Plaintiffs argue, that even
if the court finds that the privilege was
appropriately asserted, the court should use
creativity and care to devise methods which would
protect the privilege but allow the case to proceed.
The “next step in the judicial inquiry into the
validity of the assertion of the privilege is to
determine whether the information for which the
privilege is claimed qualifies as a state
secret.” El Masri, 2006 WL 1391390, at 4. Again,
the court acknowledges that it has reviewed all
of the materials Defendants submitted ex parte
and in camera. After reviewing these materials,
the court is convinced that the privilege applies
“because a reasonable danger exists that
disclosing the information in court proceedings
would harm national security interests, or would
impair national defense capabilities, disclose
intelligence-gathering methods or capabilities,
or disrupt diplomatic relations with foreign
governments.” Tenenbaum, 372 F.3d at 777.
Plaintiffs, however, maintain that this
information is not relevant to the resolution of
their claims, since their claims regarding the
TSP are based solely on what Defendants have
publicly admitted. Indeed, although the instant
case appears factually similar to Halkin, in that
they both involve plaintiffs challenging the
legality of warrantless wiretapping, a key
distinction can be drawn. Unlike Halkin or any of
the cases in the Reynolds progeny, Plaintiffs
here are not seeking any additional discovery to
establish their claims challenging the TSP.6
Like Judge Walker in Hepting, this court
recognizes that simply because a factual
statement has been made public it does not
necessarily follow that it is true. Hepting, 2006 WL 2038464 at
12. Hence, “in determining whether a factual
statement is a secret, the court considers only
public admissions or denials by the
[G]overnment.” Id. at 13. It is undisputed that
Defendants have publicly admitted to the
following: (1) the TSP exists; (2) it operates
without warrants; (3) it targets communications
where one party to the communication is outside
the United States, and the government has a
reasonable basis to conclude that one party to
the communication is a member of al Qaeda,
affiliated with al Qaeda, or a member of an
organization affiliated with al Qaeda, or working
in support of al Qaeda. As the Government has on
many occasions confirmed the veracity of these
allegations, the state secrets privilege does not
apply to this information.
Contrary to Defendants’ arguments, the court is
persuaded that Plaintiffs are able to establish a
prima facie case based solely on Defendants’
public admissions regarding the TSP. Plaintiffs’
declarations establish that their communications
would be monitored under the TSP.7 Further,
Plaintiffs have shown that because of the
existence of the TSP, they have suffered a real
and concrete harm. Plaintiffs’ declarations
state undisputedly that they are stifled in their ability to
6In Halkin, the plaintiffs were requesting that
the Government answer interrogatories and sought
to depose the secretary of defense. Halkin, 598 F.2d at 6.
7See generally, in a Declaration, attorney Nancy
Hollander stated that she frequently engages in
international communications with individuals who
have alleged connections with terrorist
organizations. (Exh. J, Hollander ). Attorney
William Swor also provided a similar declaration.
(Exh. L, Swor Decl. ). Journalist Tara McKelvey
declared that she has international
communications with sources who are suspected of helping the
insurgents in Iraq. (Exh. K, McKelvey Decl.).
vigorously conduct research, interact with
sources, talk with clients and, in the case of
the attorney Plaintiffs, uphold their oath of
providing effective and ethical representation of
their clients.8 In addition, Plaintiffs have the
additional injury of incurring substantial travel
expenses as a result of having to travel and meet
with clients and others relevant to their
cases. Therefore, the court finds that
Plaintiffs need no additional facts to establish
a prima facie case for any of their claims
questioning the legality of the TSP.
The court, however, is convinced that Plaintiffs
cannot establish a prima facie case to support
their data- mining claims without the use of
privileged information and further litigation of
this issue would force the disclosure of the
very thing the privilege is designed to
protect. Therefore, the court grants Defendants’
motion for summary judgment with respect to this claim.
Finally, Defendants assert that they cannot
defend this case without the exposure of state
secrets. This court disagrees. The Bush
Administration has repeatedly told the general
public that there is a valid basis in law for the
TSP.9 Further, Defendants have contended that the
President has the authority under the AUMF and
the Constitution to authorize the continued use
of the TSP. Defendants have supported these
arguments without revealing or relying on any
classified information. Indeed, the court has
reviewed the classified information and is of the
opinion that this information is not necessary to
any viable defense to the TSP. Defendants have presented support
8Plaintiffs’ Statement of Undisputed Facts
(hereinafter “SUF”) SUF 15 (Exh. J, Hollander
Decl. ¶¶12, 16, 25; Exh. L, Swor Decl. ¶¶9,
11-12, 14-16);Plaintiffs;’ Reply Memorandum in
Support of Plaintiffs’ Motion for Partial Summary
Judgment (hereinafter “Pl.’s Reply”) (Exh.
P, Dratel Decl. ¶¶9-11; Exh. Q, Abdrabboh Decl.
¶¶7-8; Exh. R. Ayad. Decl. ¶¶ 4, 6-8); (Exh. M Niehoff Decl. ¶¶=
12 ).
9On December 17, 2005, in a radio address, President Bush stated:
In the weeks following the terrorist attacks on
our nation, I authorized the National Security
Agency, consistent with U.S. law and the
Constitution, to intercept the international
communications of people with known links to al
Qaeda and related terrorist organizations.
http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/12/20051217.html
for the argument that “it . . is
well-established that the President may exercise
his statutory and constitutional authority to
gather intelligence information about foreign
enemies.”10 Defendants cite to various sources to
support this position. Consequently, the court
finds Defendants’ argument that they cannot
defend this case without the use of classified
information to be disingenuous and without merit.
In sum, the court holds that the state secrets
privilege applies to Plaintiffs’ data-mining
claim and that claim is dismissed. The
privilege, however, does not apply to Plaintiffs’
remaining claims challenging the validity of the
TSP, since Plaintiffs are not relying on or
requesting any classified information to support
these claims and Defendants do not need any
classified information to mount a defense against these claims.11
III. Standing
Defendants argue that Plaintiffs do not establish
their standing. They contend that Plaintiffs’
claim here is merely a subjective fear of
surveillance which falls short of the type of
injury necessary to establish standing. They
argue that Plaintiffs’ alleged injuries are too
tenuous to be recognized, not “distinct and
palpable” nor “concrete and particularized.”
Article III of the U.S. Constitution limits the
federal court’s jurisdiction to “cases” and
“controversies”. Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife,
504 U.S. 555, 560 (1992). To have a genuine case
or controversy, the plaintiff must establish
standing. “[T]he core component of standing is
an essential and unchanging part of the
case-or-controversy requirement of Article III.” Lujan v.
10Defendants’ Brief in Support of Summary Judgment pg. 33.
11Defendants also contend that Plaintiffs’ claims
are barred because they properly invoked
statutory privileges under the National Security
Agency Act of 1959, 50 U.S.C. § 402 and the
Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act
of 2004, 50 U.S.C. § 403-(i)(1). Again, these
privileges are not availing to Defendants with
respect to Plaintiffs’ claims challenging the
TSP, for the same reasons that the state secrets
privilege does not bar these claims.
Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. at 560. To
establish standing under Article III, a plaintiff
must satisfy the following three requirements:
(1) “the plaintiff must have suffered an injury
in fact - an invasion of a legally protected
interest which is (a) concrete and
particularized, and (b) actual or imminent, not
conjectural or hypothetical”; (2) “there must be
a causal connection between the injury and the
conduct complained of”, and (3) “it must be
likely, as opposed to merely speculative, that
the injury will be redressed by a favorable
decision.” Id. at 560-561. The party invoking
federal jurisdiction bears the burden of
establishing these elements. Id. at 561.
“An association has standing to bring suit on
behalf of its members when its members would
otherwise have standing to sue in their own
right, the interests it seeks to protect are
germane to the organization’s purpose, and
neither the claim asserted nor the relief
requested requires the participation of
individual members in the lawsuit.” Friends of
the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services
(TOC), Inc., 528 U.S. 167, 181 (2000) (citing
Hunt v. Washington State Apple Advertising Comm’n, 432 U.S. 333, 342 (197=
7)).
“At the pleading stage, general factual
allegations of injury resulting from the
defendant’s conduct may suffice, for on a motion
to dismiss we ‘presume that general allegations
embrace those specific facts that are necessary
to support the claim.’ ” Id. at 561 (quoting
Lujan v. National Wildlife Federation, 497 U.S.
871, 889 (1990)). “In response to a motion for
summary judgment, however, the plaintiff can no
longer rest upon such ‘mere allegations,’ but
must ‘set forth’ by affidavit or other evidence
‘specific facts’ Fed.R.Civ.Proc. 56(e), which for
purposes of the summary judgment motion will be
taken to be true.” Id. This court is persuaded
that Plaintiffs in this case have set forth the
necessary facts to have satisfied all three of
the prerequisites listed above to establish standing.
To determine whether Plaintiffs have standing to
challenge the constitutionality of the TSP, we
must examine the nature of the injury-in-fact
which they have alleged. “The injury must be ...
‘distinct and palpable,’ and not ‘abstract’ or
‘conjectural’ or ‘hypothetical.’” National Rifle
Association of America v. Magaw, 132 F.3d 272,
280 (6th Cir. 1997) (citing Allen v. Wright, 468 U.S 737, 751 (1982)).
Plaintiffs here contend that the TSP has
interfered with their ability to carry out their
professional responsibilities in a variety of
ways, including that the TSP has had a
significant impact on their ability to talk with
sources, locate witnesses, conduct scholarship,
engage in advocacy and communicate with persons
who are outside of the United States, including
in the Middle East and Asia. Plaintiffs have
submitted several declarations to that
effect. For example, scholars and journalists
such as plaintiffs Tara McKelvey, Larry Diamond,
and Barnett Rubin indicate that they must conduct
extensive research in the Middle East, Africa,
and Asia, and must communicate with individuals
abroad whom the United States government believes
to be terrorist suspects or to be associated with
terrorist organizations.12 In addition,
attorneys Nancy Hollander, William Swor, Joshua
Dratel, Mohammed Abdrabboh, and Nabih Ayad
indicate that they must also communicate with
individuals abroad whom the United States
government believes to be terrorist suspects or
to be associated with terrorist organizations,13
and must discuss confidential information over
the phone and email with their international
clients.14 All of the Plaintiffs contend that
the TSP has caused clients, witnesses and sources
to discontinue their communications with plaintiffs out of fear that
12SUF 15B (Exh. I, Diamond Decl. ¶9; Exh. K,
McKelvey Decl. ¶8-10). 13SUF 15B (Exh. J,
Hollander Decl. ¶¶12-14, 17-24; Exh. L, Swor
Decl. ¶¶5-7, 10);Pl.’s Reply ( Exh. M, Dratel
Decl. ¶¶5-6; Exh. Q, Abdrabboh Decl. ¶¶3-4; Exh.
R, Ayad Decl. ¶¶ 5, 7-9). 14SUF 15 (Exh. J,
Hollander Decl. ¶¶12, 16, 25; Exh. L, Swor Decl.
¶¶9, 11-12, 14-16); Pl.’s Reply (Exh. P, Dratel
Decl. ¶¶5-6; Exh. Q, Abdrabboh Decl. ¶¶3-4; Exh. R, Ayad Decl. ¶=
¶ 6-7). 17
their communications will be intercepted.15 They
also allege injury based on the increased
financial burden they incur in having to travel
substantial distances to meet personally with
their clients and others relevant to their cases.16
The ability to communicate confidentially is an
indispensable part of the attorney-client
relationship. As University of Michigan legal
ethics professor Leonard Niehoff explains,
attorney-client confidentiality is “central to
the functioning of the attorney-client
relationship and to effective
representation.”17 He further explains that
Defendants’ TSP “creates an overwhelming, if not
insurmountable, obstacle to effective and ethical
representation” and that although Plaintiffs are
resorting to other “inefficient” means for
gathering information, the TSP continues to cause
“substantial and ongoing harm to the
attorney-client relationships and legal
representations.”18 He explains that the
increased risk that privileged communications
will be intercepted forces attorneys to cease
telephonic and electronic communications with
clients to fulfill their ethical responsibilities.19
Defendants argue that the allegations present no
more than a “chilling effect” based upon purely
speculative fears that the TSP subjects the
Plaintiffs to surveillance. In arguing that the
injuries are not constitutionally cognizable,
Defendants rely heavily on the case of Laird v. Tatum, 408 U.S. 1 (1972).
15SUF 15 (Exh. J, Hollander Decl. ¶¶12, 16, 25;
Exh. L, Swor Decl. ¶¶9, 11-12, 14-16);Pl.’s Reply
(Exh. P, Dratel Decl. ¶¶9-11; Exh. Q, Abdrabboh
Decl. ¶¶7-8; Exh. R. Ayad. Decl. ¶¶ 4, 6-8).
16SUF 15 (Exh. J, Hollander Decl. ¶¶20, 23-25;
Exh. L, Swor Decl. ¶¶13-14); Pl.’s Reply (Exh. P,
Dratel Decl. ¶¶9-11; Exh. Q, Abdrabboh Decl.
¶¶7-8; Exh. R, Ayad Decl. ¶¶ 6-8). 17Pl.’s Reply
(Exh. M Niehoff Decl. ¶¶ 12 ) 18Pl.’s Reply (Exh.
M Niehoff Decl. ¶¶ 19-20 ) 19Pl.’s Reply (Exh. M Niehoff Decl. ¶¶=
15-20 ) 18
In Laird, the plaintiffs sought declaratory and
injunctive relief on their claim that their
rights were being invaded by the Army’s domestic
surveillance of civil disturbances and “public
activities that were thought to have at least
some potential for civil disorder.” Id. at 6.
The plaintiffs argued that the surveillance
created a chilling effect on their First
Amendment rights caused by the existence and
operation of the surveillance program in
general. Id. at 3. The Supreme Court rejected
the plaintiffs’ efforts to rest standing upon the
mere “chill” that the program cast upon their
associational activities. It said that the
“jurisdiction of a federal court may [not] be
invoked by a complainant who alleges that the
exercise of his First Amendment rights is being
chilled by the mere existence, without more, of a
governmental investigative and data-gathering activity.” Id. (emphasis a=
dded)
Laird, however, must be distinguished here. The
plaintiffs in Laird alleged only that they could
conceivably become subject to the Army’s domestic
surveillance program. Presbyterian Church v.
United States, 870 F.2d 518, 522 (1989) (citing
Laird v. Tatum, 408 U.S at 13) (emphasis added).
The Plaintiffs here are not merely alleging that
they “could conceivably” become subject to
surveillance under the TSP, but that continuation
of the TSP has damaged them. The President
indeed has publicly acknowledged that the types
of calls Plaintiffs are making are the types of
conversations that would be subject to the TSP.20
Although Laird establishes that a party’s
allegation that it has suffered a subjective
“chill” alone does not confer Article III
standing, Laird does not control this case. As Justice (then Judge)
20In December 2005, the President publicly
acknowledged that the TSP intercepts the contents
of certain communications as to which there are
reasonable grounds to believe that (1) the
communication originated or terminated outside
the United States, and (2) a party to such
communication is a member of al Qaeda, a member
of a group affiliated with al Qaeda, or an agent
of al Qaeda or its affiliates. Available at
http://www.whitehouse.gov//news/releases/2005/12/20051219-2.html.
Breyer has observed, “[t]he problem for the
government with Laird . . . lies in the key words
‘without more.’” Ozonoff v. Berzak, 744 F.2d 224,
229 (1st Cir. 1984). This court agrees with
Plaintiffs’ position that “standing here does not
rest on the TSP’s ‘mere existence, without
more.’” The Plaintiffs in this case are not
claiming simply that the Defendants’ surveillance
has “chilled” them from making international
calls to sources and clients. Rather, they claim
that Defendants’ surveillance has chilled their
sources, clients, and potential witnesses from
communicating with them. The alleged effect on
Plaintiffs is a concrete, actual inability to
communicate with witnesses, sources, clients and
others without great expense which has
significantly crippled Plaintiffs, at a minimum,
in their ability to report the news and
competently and effectively represent their
clients. See Presbyterian Church v. United
States, 870 F.2d 518 (1989) (church suffered
substantial decrease in attendance and
participation of individual congregants as a
result of governmental surveillance). Plaintiffs
have suffered actual concrete injuries to their
abilities to carry out their professional
responsibilities. The direct injury and objective
chill incurred by Plaintiffs are more than
sufficient to place this case outside the limitations imposed by Laird.
The instant case is more akin to Friends of the
Earth, in which the Court granted standing to
environmental groups who sued a polluter under
the Clean Water Act because environmental damage
caused by the defendant had deterred members of
the plaintiff organizations from using and
enjoying certain lands and rivers. Friends of the
Earth, 528 U.S. at 181-183. The Court there held
that the affidavits and testimony presented by
plaintiffs were sufficient to establish
reasonable concerns about the effects of those
discharges and were more than “general averments”
and “conclusory allegations.” Friends of the
Earth, 528 U.S. at 183-184. The court
distinguished the case from Lujan, in which the
Court had held that no actual injury had been
established where plaintiffs merely indicated
“‘some day’ intentions to visit endangered
species around the world.” Friends of the Earth,
528 U.S. at 184 (quoting Lujan, 504 U.S. at 564).
The court found that the affiants’ conditional
statements that they would use the nearby river
for recreation if defendant were not discharging
pollutants into it was sufficient to establish a concrete injury. Id. at 1=
84.
Here, Plaintiffs are not asserting speculative
allegations. Instead, the declarations asserted
by Plaintiffs establish that they are suffering a
present concrete injury in addition to a chill of
their First Amendment rights. Plaintiffs would
be able to continue using the telephone and email
in the execution of their professional
responsibilities if the Defendants were not
undisputedly and admittedly conducting
warrantless wiretaps of conversations. As in
Friends of the Earth, this damage to their
interest is sufficient to establish a concrete injury.
Numerous cases have granted standing where the
plaintiffs have suffered concrete
profession-related injuries comparable to those
suffered by Plaintiffs here. For example, the
First Circuit conferred standing upon claimants
who challenged an executive order which required
applicants for employment with the World Health
Organization to undergo a “loyalty” check that
included an investigation into the applicant’s
associations and activities. The court there
determined that such an investigation would have
a chilling effect on what an applicant says or
does, a sufficient injury to confer standing.
Ozonoff, 744 F.2d at 228-229. Similarly, the
District of Columbia Circuit Court of Appeals
granted standing to a reshelver of books at the
Library of Congress who was subjected to a full
field FBI investigation which included an inquiry
into his political beliefs and associations and
subsequently resulted in his being denied a
promotion or any additional employment
opportunities; the court having determined that
plaintiff had suffered a present objective harm,
as well as an objective chill of his First
Amendment rights and not merely a potential
subjective chill as in Laird. Also, the Supreme
Court in Presbyterian Church v. United States,
granted standing to a church which suffered
decreased attendance and participation when the
government actually entered the church to conduct
surveillance. Presbyterian Church, 870 F.2d at
522. Lastly, in Jabara v. Kelley, 476 F.Supp. 561
(E.D. Mich. 1979), vac’d on other grounds sub.
nom. Jabara v. Webster, 691 F.2d 272 (6th Cir.
1982), the court held that an attorney had
standing to sue to enjoin unlawful FBI and NSA
surveillance which had deterred others from
associating with him and caused “injury to his
reputation and legal business.” Id. at 568.
These cases constitute acknowledgment that
substantial burdens upon a plaintiff’s
professional activities are an injury sufficient
to support standing. Defendants ignore the
significant, concrete injuries which Plaintiffs
continue to experience from Defendants’
illegal monitoring of their telephone
conversations and email
communications. Plaintiffs undeniably have cited
to distinct, palpable, and substantial injuries
that have resulted from the TSP.
This court finds that the injuries alleged by
Plaintiffs are “concrete and particularized”, and
not “abstract or conjectural.” The TSP is not
hypothetical, it is an actual surveillance
program that was admittedly instituted after
September 11, 2001, and has been reauthorized by
the President more than thirty times since the
attacks.21 The President has, moreover,
emphasized that he intends to continue to
reauthorize the TSP indefinitely.22 Further, the
court need not speculate upon the kind of
activity the Plaintiffs want to engage in - they
want to engage in conversations with individuals
abroad without fear that their First Amendment
rights are being infringed upon. Therefore, this
court concludes that Plaintiffs have satisfied
the requirement of alleging “actual or threatened
21Available at
http://www.white-house.gov//news/releases/2005/12/20051219-2.html
22Id.
injury” as a result of Defendants’ conduct.
It must now be determined whether Plaintiffs have
shown that there is a causal connection between
the injury and the complained of conduct. Lujan,
504 U.S. at 560-561. The causal connection
between the injury and the conduct complained of
is fairly traceable to the challenged action of
Defendants. The TSP admittedly targets
communications originated or terminated outside
the United States where a party to such
communication is in the estimation of Defendants,
a member of al Qaeda, a member of a group
affiliated with al Qaeda, or an agent of al Qaeda
or its affiliates.23 The injury to the Plaintiffs
stems directly from the TSP and their injuries
can unequivocally be traced to the TSP.
Finally, it is likely that the injury will be
redressed by the requested relief. A
determination by this court that the TSP is
unconstitutional and a further determination
which enjoins Defendants from continued
warrantless wiretapping in contravention of FISA
would assure Plaintiffs and others that they
could freely engage in conversations and
correspond via email without concern, at least
without notice, that such communications were
being monitored. The requested relief would thus
redress the injury to Plaintiffs caused by the TSP.
Although this court is persuaded that Plaintiffs
have alleged sufficient injury to establish
standing, it is important to note that if the
court were to deny standing based on the
unsubstantiated minor distinctions drawn by
Defendants, the President’s actions in
warrantless wiretapping, in contravention of
FISA, Title III, and the First and Fourth
Amendments, would be immunized from judicial
scrutiny. It was never the intent of the Framers
to give the President such unfettered control,
particularly where his actions blatantly
disregard the parameters clearly enumerated in the Bill of
23Available at
http://www.white-house.gov//news/releases/2005/12/20051219-2.html 23
Rights. The three separate branches of government
were developed as a check and balance for one
another. It is within the court’s duty to ensure
that power is never “condense[d] ... into a
single branch of government.” Hamdi v. Rumsfeld,
542 U.S. 507, 536 (2004) (plurality opinion). We
must always be mindful that “[w]hen the President
takes official action, the Court has the
authority to determine whether he has acted
within the law.” Clinton v. Jones, 520 U.S. 681,
703 (1997). “It remains one of the most vital
functions of this Court to police with care the
separation of the governing powers . . . . When
structure fails, liberty is always in
peril.” Public Citizen v. U.S. Dept. of Justice,
491 U.S. 440, 468 (1989) (Kennedy, J., concurring).
Because of the very secrecy of the activity here
challenged, Plaintiffs each must be and are given
standing to challenge it, because each of them,
is injured and chilled substantially in the
exercise of First Amendment rights so long as it
continues. Indeed, as the perceived need for
secrecy has apparently required that no person be
notified that he is aggrieved by the activity,
and there have been no prosecutions, no requests
for extensions or retroactive approvals of
warrants, no victim in America would be given
standing to challenge this or any other
unconstitutional activity, according to the
Government. The activity has been acknowledged, nevertheless.
Plaintiffs have sufficiently alleged that they
suffered an actual, concrete injury traceable to
Defendants and redressable by this court.
Accordingly, this court denies Defendants’ motion
to dismiss for lack of standing.
IV. The History of Electronic Surveillance in America
Since the Court’s 1967 decision of Katz v. U.S.,
389 U.S. 347 (1967), it has been understood that
the search and seizure of private telephone
conversations without physical trespass required
prior judicial sanction, pursuant to the Fourth
Amendment. Justice Stewart there wrote for the
Court that searches conducted without prior
approval by a judge or magistrate were per se
unreasonable, under the Fourth Amendment. Id. at 357.
Congress then, in 1968, enacted Title III of the
Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act
(hereinafter “Title III”)24 governing all wire
and electronic interceptions in the fight against
certain listed major crimes. The Statute defined
an “ aggrieved person”,25 and gave such person
standing to challenge any interception allegedly
made without a judicial order supported by
probable cause, after requiring notice to such
person of any interception made.26
The statute also stated content requirements for
warrants and applications under oath therefor
made,27 including time, name of the target, place
to be searched and proposed duration of that
search, and provided that upon showing of an
emergency situation, a post-interception warrant
could be obtained within forty-eight hours.28
In 1972 the court decided U.S. v. U.S. District
Court, 407 U.S. 297 (1972) (the Keith case) and
held that, for lawful electronic surveillance
even in domestic security matters, the Fourth
Amendment requires a prior warrant.
In 1976 the Congressional “Church Committee”29
disclosed that every President since 1946
24Pub. L. 90-351, 82 Stat. 211, codified as
amended at 18 U.S.C. §§ 2510 et seq.
2518 U.S.C. § 2510(11) (“aggrieved person” means
a person who was a party to any intercepted wire, oral,
or electronic communication or a person against
whom the interception was directed.)
2618 U.S.C. § 2518
2718 U.S.C. § 2518(1)
2818 U.S.C. § 2518(7)
29The “Church Committee” was the United States
Committee to Study Governmental Operations with
Respect to Intelligence Activities. 25
had engaged in warrantless wiretaps in the name
of national security, and that there had been
numerous political abuses30, and in 1978 Congress enacted the FISA.31
Title III specifically excluded from its coverage
all interceptions of international or foreign
communications; and was later amended to state
that “the FISA of 1978 shall be the exclusive
means by which electronic surveillance of foreign
intelligence communications may be conducted.”32
The government argues that Title III’s disclaimer
language, at 18 U.S.C. § 2511(2)(f), that nothing
therein should be construed to limit the
constitutional power of the President (to make
international wiretaps). In the Keith case,
Justice Powell wrote that “Congress simply left
Presidential powers where it found them”, that
the disclaimer was totally neutral, and not a
grant of authority. U.S. v. U.S. District Court, 407 U.S. at 303.
The FISA defines a “United States person”33 to
include each of Plaintiffs herein and requires a
prior warrant for any domestic international
interception of their communications. For
various exigencies, exceptions are made. That
is, the government is granted fifteen days from
Congressional Declaration of War within which it
may conduct intercepts before application for an
order.34 It is also granted one year, on
certification by the Attorney General,35 and seventy-two hours for other
30S. REP. NO. 94-755, at 332 (1976)
31Pub. L. 95-511, Title I, 92 Stat 1976 (Oct. 25,
1978), codified as amended at 50 U.S.C. §§ 1801 et seq.
3218 U.S.C. §2511(2)(f)
3350 U.S.C. § 1801(h)(4)(i)(“United States
person) means a citizen of the United States, an alien lawfully
admitted for permanent residence, an
unincorporated association a substantial number
of members of which are citizens of the United
States or aliens lawfully admitted for permanent
residence, or a corporation which is incorporated
in the United States which is not a foreign power.
3450 U.S.C. § 1811
3550 U.S.C. § 1802
defined exigencies.36
Those delay provisions clearly reflect the
Congressional effort to balance executive needs
against the privacy rights of United States
persons, as recommended by Justice Powell in the
Keith case when he stated that:
Different standards may be compatible with the
Fourth Amendment if they are reasonable both in
relation to the legitimate need of Government for
intelligence information and the protected rights
of our citizens.. U.S. v. U.S. District Court, 407 U.S. at 322-323.
Also reflective of the balancing process Congress
pursued in FISA is the requirement that
interceptions may be for no longer than a ninety
day duration, minimization is again required37,
and an aggrieved person is again (as in Title
III) required to be notified of proposed use and
given the opportunity to file a motion to
suppress.38 Also again, alternatives to a
wiretap must be found to have been exhausted or to have been ineffective.39
A FISA judicial warrant, moreover, requires a
finding of probable cause to believe that the
target was either a foreign power or agent
thereof,40 not that a crime had been or would be
committed, as Title III’s more stringent standard
required. Finally, a special FISA court was
required to be appointed, of federal judges
designated by the Chief Justice.41 They were
required to hear, ex parte, all applications and make all orders.42
3650 U.S.C. § 1805(f)
3750 U.S.C. § 1805(e)(1)
3850 U.S.C. § 1806(c)
3950 U.S.C. § 1804(a)(7)(E)(ii), § 1805(a)(5)
4050 U.S.C. § 1805(b)
4150 U.S.C § 1803
4250 U.S.C § 1805
The FISA was essentially enacted to create a
secure framework by which the Executive branch
may conduct legitimate electronic surveillance
for foreign intelligence while meeting our
national commitment to the Fourth Amendment. It
is fully described in United States v. Falvey, 540
F. Supp. 1306 (E.D.N.Y. 1982), where the court
held that FISA did not intrude upon the
President’s undisputed right to conduct foreign
affairs, but protected citizens and resident
aliens within this country, as “United States persons.” Id. at 1312.
The Act was subsequently found to meet Fourth
Amendment requirements constituting a reasonable
balance between Governmental needs and the
protected rights of our citizens, in United
States v. Cavanagh, 807 F.2d 787 (9th Cir. 1987),
and United States v. Duggan,743, F.2d 59 (2d Cir. 1984).
Against this background the present program of
warrantless wiretapping has been authorized by
the administration and the present lawsuit filed.
V. The Fourth Amendment
The Constitutional Amendment which must first be discussed provides:
The right the of people to be secure in their
persons, houses, papers, and effects, against
unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be
violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon
probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation,
and particularly describing the place to be
searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
U.S. CONST. Amend. IV.
This Amendment “. . . was specifically
propounded and ratified with the memory of . . .
Entick v. Carrington, 95 Eng. Rep. 807 (1765) in
mind”, stated Circuit Judge Skelly Wright in
Zweibon v. Mitchell, 516 F.2d 594, 618 n.67 (D.C.
Circ. 1975) (en banc) (plurality
opinion). Justice Douglas, in his concurrence in
the Keith case, also noted the significance of Entick in our history, stati=
ng:
For it was such excesses as the use of general
warrants and the writs of assistance that led to
the ratification of the Fourth Amendment. In
Entick v. Carrington (citation omitted), decided
in 1765, one finds a striking parallel to the
executive warrants utilized here. The Secretary
of State had issued general executive warrants to
his messengers authorizing them to roam about and
to seize libelous material and libellants of the
sovereign. Entick, a critic of the Crown, was
the victim of one such general search during
which his seditious publications were
impounded. He brought a successful damage action
for trespass against the messengers. The verdict
was sustained on appeal. Lord Camden wrote that
if such sweeping tactics were validated, then the
secret cabinets and bureaus of every subject in
this kingdom will be thrown open to the search
and inspection of a messenger, whenever the
secretary of state shall think fit to charge, or
even to suspect, a person to be the author,
printer, or publisher of a seditious libel.’
(citation omitted) In a related and similar
proceeding, Huckle v. Money (citation omitted),
the same judge who presided over Entick’s appeal
held for another victim of the same despotic
practice, saying ‘(t)o enter a man’s house by
virtue of a nameless warrant, in order to procure
evidence, is worse than the Spanish Inquisition .
. .’ See also Wilkes v. Wood (citation omitted),
. . . [t]he tyrannical invasions described and
assailed in Entick, Huckle, and Wilkes, practices
which also were endured by the colonists, have
been recognized as the primary abuses which
ensured the Warrant Clause a prominent place in our Bill of Rights. U.S. v=
.
U.S. District Court, 407 U.S. at 328-329 (Douglas, J., concurring).
Justice Powell, in writing for the court in the Keith case also wrote that:
Over two centuries ago, Lord Mansfield held that
common-law principles prohibited warrants that
ordered the arrest of unnamed individuals who the
officer might conclude were guilty of seditious
libel. ‘It is not fit,’ said Mansfield, ‘that the
receiving or judging of the information should be
left to the discretion of the officer. The
magistrate ought to judge; and should give
certain directions to the officer.’ (citation omitted).
Lord Mansfield’s formulation touches the very
heart of the Fourth Amendment directive: that,
where practical, a governmental search and
seizure should represent both the efforts of the
officer to gather evidence of wrongful acts and
the judgment of the magistrate that the collected
evidence is sufficient to justify invasion of a
citizen’s private premises or
conversation. Inherent in the concept of a
warrant is its issuance by a ‘neutral and
detached magistrate.’ (citations omitted) The
further requirement of ‘probable cause’ instructs
the magistrate that baseless searches shall not proceed. U.S.
v. U.S. District Court, 407 U.S. at 316. The
Fourth Amendment, accordingly, was adopted to
assure that Executive abuses of the power to
search would not continue in our new nation.
Justice White wrote in 1984 in United States v.
Karo, 468 U.S. 705 (1984), a case involving
installation and monitoring of a beeper which had
found its way into a home, that a private
residence is a place in which society recognizes
an expectation of privacy; that warrantless
searches of such places are presumptively
unreasonable, absent exigencies. Id. at 714-715.
Karo is consistent with Katz where Justice Stewart held that:
‘Over and again this Court has emphasized that
the mandate of the (Fourth) Amendment requires
adherence to judicial processes,’ (citation
omitted) and that searches conducted outside the
judicial process, without prior approval by judge
or magistrate, are per se unreasonable under the
Fourth Amendment - subject only to a few
specifically established and well-delineated exceptions. Katz, 389
U.S. at 357.
Justice Powell’s opinion in the Keith case also stated that:
The Fourth Amendment does not contemplate the
executive officers of Government as neutral and
disinterested magistrates. Their duty and
responsibility are to enforce the laws, to
investigate, and to prosecute. (citation
omitted) But those charged with this
investigative and prosecutorial duty should not
be the sole judges of when to utilize
constitutionally sensitive means in pursuing
their tasks. The historical judgment, which the
Fourth Amendment accepts, is that unreviewed
executive discretion may yield too readily to
pressures to obtain incriminating evidence and
overlook potential invasions of privacy and
protected speech. U.S. v. U.S. District Court, 407 U.S. at 317.
Accordingly, the Fourth Amendment, about which
much has been written, in its few words requires
reasonableness in all searches. It also requires
prior warrants for any reasonable search, based
upon prior-existing probable cause, as well as
particularity as to persons, places, and things,
and the interposition of a neutral magistrate
between Executive branch enforcement officers and citizens.
In enacting FISA, Congress made numerous
concessions to stated executive needs. They
include delaying the applications for warrants
until after surveillance has begun for several
types of exigencies, reducing the probable cause
requirement to a less stringent standard,
provision of a single court of judicial experts,
and extension of the duration of approved
wiretaps from thirty days (under Title III) to a ninety day term.
All of the above Congressional concessions to
Executive need and to the exigencies of our
present situation as a people, however, have been
futile. The wiretapping program here in
litigation has undisputedly been continued for at
least five years, it has undisputedly been
implemented without regard to FISA and of course
the more stringent standards of Title III, and
obviously in violation of the Fourth Amendment.
The President of the United States is himself
created by that same Constitution.
VI. The First Amendment
The First Amendment provides:
Congress shall make no law respecting an
establishment of religion, or prohibiting the
free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom
of speech, or of the press; or the right of the
people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the
Government for a redress of grievances.
U.S. CONST. Amend. I.
This Amendment, the very first which the American
people required to be made to the new
Constitution, was adopted, as was the Fourth,
with Entick v. Carrington, and the actions of the
star chamber in mind. As the Court wrote in
Marcus v. Search Warrants, 367 U.S. 717 (1961):
Historically the struggle for freedom of speech
and press in England was bound up with the issue
of the scope of the search and seizure. . . .
* * * * This history was, of course, part of the
intellectual matrix within which our own
constitutional fabric was shaped. The Bill of
Rights was fashioned against the background of
knowledge that unrestricted power of search and
seizure could also be an instrument for stifling
liberty of expression. Marcus, 367 U.S. at 724, 729
As Justice Brennan wrote for the Court in
Dombrowski v. Pfister, 380 U.S. 479 (1965), the
appellant organizations had been subjected to
repeated announcements of their subversiveness
which frightened off potential members and
contributors, and had been harmed irreparably,
requiring injunctive relief. The Louisiana law
against which they complained, moreover, had a
chilling effect on protected expression because,
so long as the statute was available, the threat
of prosecution for protected expression remained real and substantial.
Judge Wright, in Zweibon, noted that the tapping
of an organization’s office phone will provide
the membership roster of that organization, as
forbidden by Bates v. City of Little Rock, 361
U.S. 516 (1960); thereby causing members to leave
that organization, and thereby chilling the
organization’s First Amendment rights and causing
the loss of membership. Zweibon, 516 F.2d at
634.
A governmental action to regulate speech may be
justified only upon showing of a compelling
governmental interest; and that the means chosen
to further that interest are the least
restrictive of freedom of belief and association
that could be chosen. Clark v. Library of
Congress, 750 F.2d 89, 94 (D.C. Cir. 1984).
It must be noted that FISA explicitly admonishes
that “. . . no United States person may be
considered . . . an agent of a foreign power
solely upon the basis of activities protected by the First
Amendment to the Constitution of the United
States.” 50 U.S.C. §1805(a)(3)(A). See also United
States v. Falvey, 540 F. Supp. at 1310.
Finally, as Justice Powell wrote for the Court in the Keith case:
National security cases, moreover, often reflect
a convergence of First and Fourth Amendment
values not present in cases of ‘ordinary’
crime. Though the investigative duty of the
executive may be stronger in such cases, so also
is there greater jeopardy to constitutionally
protected speech. ‘Historically the struggle for
freedom of speech and press in England was bound
up with the issue of the scope of the search and
seizure power,’ (citation omitted). History
abundantly documents the tendency of Government
–however benevolent and benign its motives – to
view with suspicion those who most fervently
dispute its policies. Fourth Amendment
protections become the more necessary when the
targets of official surveillance may be those
suspected of unorthodoxy in their political
beliefs. U.S. v. U.S. District Court, 407 U.S. at 313-314.
The President of the United States, a creature of
the same Constitution which gave us these
Amendments, has undisputedly violated the Fourth
in failing to procure judicial orders as required
by FISA, and accordingly has violated the First
Amendment Rights of these Plaintiffs as well.
VII. The Separation of Powers
The Constitution of the United States provides
that “[a]ll legislative Powers herein granted
shall be vested in a Congress of the United
States. . . .”43 It further provides that “[t]he
executive Power shall be vested in a President of
the United States of America.”44 And that “. . .
he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed . . . .”45
43U.S. CONST. art. I, § 1
44U.S. CONST. art. II, § 1
45U.S. CONST. art. II, § 3
Our constitution was drafted by founders and
ratified by a people who still held in vivid
memory the image of King George III and his
General Warrants. The concept that each form of
governmental power should be separated was a
well-developed one. James Madison wrote that:
The accumulation of all powers, legislative,
executive, and judiciary, in the same hands,
whether of one, a few, or many, and whether
hereditary, self-appointed, or elective, may
justly be pronounced the very definition of
tyranny. THE FEDERALIST NO. 47, at 301 (James Madison).
The seminal American case in this area, and one
on which the government appears to rely, is that
of Youngstown Sheet & Tube v. Sawyer, 343 U.S.
579 (1952) in which Justice Black, for the court,
held that the Presidential order in question, to
seize steel mills, was not within the
constitutional powers of the chief executive. Justice Black wrote that:
The founders of this Nation entrusted the
law-making power to the Congress alone in both
good and bad times. It would do no good to
recall the historical events, the fears of power
and the hopes for freedom that lay behind their
choice. Such a review would but confirm our
holding that this seizure order cannot stand. Youngstown, 343 U.S. at 589.
Justice Jackson’s concurring opinion in that
case has become historic. He wrote that,
although the Constitution had diffused powers the
better to secure liberty, the powers of the
President are not fixed, but fluctuate, depending
upon their junctures with the actions of
Congress. Thus, if the President acted pursuant
to an express or implied authorization by
Congress, his power was at it maximum, or
zenith. If he acted in absence of Congressional
action, he was in a zone of twilight reliant upon
only his own independent powers. Youngstown, 343
U.S. at 636-638. But “when the President takes
measures incompatible with the expressed or
implied will of Congress, his power is at its
lowest ebb, for he can rely only upon his own
Constitutional powers minus any Constitutional
powers of Congress over the matter.” Youngstown, 343 U.S. at 637 (Jackson=
, J.,
concurring).
In that case, he wrote that it had been conceded
that no congressional authorization existed
for the Presidential seizure. Indeed, Congress
had several times covered the area with statutory
enactments inconsistent with the seizure. He
further wrote of the President’s powers that:
The example of such unlimited executive power
that must have most impressed the forefathers was
the prerogative exercised by George III, and the
description of its evils in the Declaration of
Independence leads me to doubt that they were
creating their new Executive in his
image. Continental European examples were no
more appealing. And if we seek instruction from
our own times, we can match it only from the
executive powers in those governments we
disparagingly describe as totalitarian. I cannot
accept the view that this clause is a grant in
bulk of all conceivable executive power but
regard it as an allocation to the presidential
office of the generic powers thereafter stated. Id. at 641.
After analyzing the more recent experiences of
Weimar, Germany, the French Republic, and
Great Britain, he wrote that:
This contemporary foreign experience may be
inconclusive as to the wisdom of lodging
emergency powers somewhere in a modern
government. But it suggests that emergency
powers are consistent with free government only
when their control is lodged elsewhere than in
the Executive who exercises them. That is the
safeguard that would be nullified by our adoption
of the ‘inherent powers’ formula. Nothing in my
experience convinces me that such risks are
warranted by any real necessity, although such
powers would, of course, be an executive convenience. Id. at 652.
Justice Jackson concluded that:
With all its defects, delays and inconveniences,
men have discovered no technique for long
preserving free government except that the
Executive be under the law, and that the law be
made by parliamentary deliberations. Youngstown,
343 U.S. at 655 (Jackson, J., concurring).
Accordingly, Jackson concurred, the President had acted unlawfully.
In this case, the President has acted,
undisputedly, as FISA forbids. FISA is the
expressed statutory policy of our Congress. The
presidential power, therefore, was exercised at
its lowest ebb and cannot be sustained.
In United States v. Moussaoui, 365 F.3d 292 (4th
Cir. 2004) a prosecution in which production of
enemy combatant witnesses had been refused by the
government and the doctrine of Separation of
Powers raised, the court, citing Mistretta v.
United States, 488 U.S. 361 (1989), noted that it:
“[C]onsistently has given voice to, and has
reaffirmed, the central judgment of the Framers
of the Constitution that, within our political
scheme, the separation of governmental powers
into three coordinate Branches is essential to
the preservation of liberty.” United States v.
Moussaoui, 365 F.3d at 305 citing Mistretta v. United States, 488
U.S. 361, 380 (1989)
Finally, in the case of Clinton v. Jones, 520
U.S. 681 (1997), the separation of powers
doctrine is again discussed and, again, some
overlap of the authorities of two branches is
permitted. In that case, although Article III
jurisdiction of the federal courts is found
intrusive and burdensome to the Chief Executive
it did not follow, the court held, that
separation of powers principles would be violated
by allowing a lawsuit against the Chief Executive
to proceed. Id. at 701. Mere burdensomeness or
inconvenience did not rise to the level of
superceding the doctrine of separation of powers. Id. at 703.
In this case, if the teachings of Youngstown are
law, the separation of powers doctrine has been
violated. The President, undisputedly, has
violated the provisions of FISA for a five-year
period. Justice Black wrote, in Youngstown:
Nor can the seizure order be sustained because of
the several constitutional provisions that grant
executive power to the President.
36
In the framework of our Constitution, the
President’s power to see that the laws are
faithfully executed refutes the idea that he is
to be a lawmaker. The Constitution limits his
functions in the lawmaking process to the
recommending of laws he thinks wise and the
vetoing of laws he thinks bad. And the
Constitution is neither silent nor equivocal
about who make laws which the President is to
execute. The first section of the first article
says that ‘All legislative powers herein granted
shall be vested in a Congress of the United States * * *’
The President’s order does not direct that a
congressional policy be executed in a manner
prescribed by Congress – it directs that a
presidential policy be executed in a manner
prescribed by the President. . . . The
Constitution did not subject this law-making
power of Congress to presidential or military
supervision or control. Youngstown, 343 U.S. at 587-588.
These secret authorization orders must, like the
executive order in that case, fall. They
violate the Separation of Powers ordained by the
very Constitution of which this President is a
creature.
VIII. The Authorization for Use of Military Force
After the terrorist attack on this Country of
September 11, 2001, the Congress jointly enacted
the Authorization for Use of Military Force (hereinafter “AUMF”) which =
states:
That the President is authorized to use all
necessary and appropriate force against those
nations, organizations, or persons he determines
planned, authorized, committed, or aided the
terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11,
2001, or harbored such organizations or persons,
in order to prevent any future acts of
international terrorism against the United States
by such nations, organizations or persons.46
The Government argues here that it was given
authority by that resolution to conduct the TSP
in violation of both FISA and the Constitution.
First, this court must note that the AUMF says
nothing whatsoever of intelligence or
46Authorization for Use of Military Force, Pub.
L. No. 107-40, § 2(a), 115 Stat. 224 (Sept. 18,
2001) (reported as a note to 50 U.S.C.A. § 1541)
surveillance. The government argues that such
authority must be implied. Next it must be noted
that FISA and Title III, are together by their
terms denominated by Congress as the exclusive
means by which electronic surveillance may be
conducted. Both statutes have made abundantly
clear that prior warrants must be obtained from
the FISA court for such surveillance, with
limited exceptions, none of which are here even
raised as applicable. Indeed, the government here
claims that the AUMF has by implication granted
its TSP authority for more than five years,
although FISA’s longest exception, for the
Declaration of War by Congress, is only fifteen
days from date of such a Declaration.47
FISA’s history and content, detailed above, are
highly specific in their requirements, and the
AUMF, if construed to apply at all to
intelligence is utterly general. In Morales v. TWA, Inc., 504
U.S. 374 (1992), the Supreme Court taught us that
“it is a commonplace of statutory construction
that the specific governs the general.” Id. at
384. The implication argued by Defendants,
therefore, cannot be made by this court.
The case of Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507
(2004) in which the Supreme Court held that a
United States citizen may be held as an enemy
combatant, but is required by the U.S.
Constitution to be given due process of law, must
also be examined. Justice O’Connor wrote for the court that:
[D]etention of individuals . . . for the duration
of the particular conflict in which they are
captured is so fundamental and accepted an
incident to war as to be an exercise of the
“necessary and appropriate force” Congress has
authorized the President to use. Hamdi, 542
U.S. at 518.
She wrote that the entire object of capture is to
prevent the captured combatant from returning to
his same enemy force, and that a prisoner would
most certainly return to those forces
4750 U.S.C. § 1811
if set free. Congress had, therefore, clearly
authorized detention by the Force Resolution. Id. at 518
519.
However, she continued, indefinite detention for
purposes of interrogation was certainly not
authorized and it raised the question of what
process is constitutionally due to a citizen who
disputes the enemy combatant status assigned him. Hamdi, 542 U.S. at 521, 5=
24.
Justice O’Connor concluded that such a citizen
must be given Fifth Amendment rights to contest
his classification, including notice and the
opportunity to be heard by a neutral
decisionmaker. Hamdi, 542 U.S. at 533 (citing
Cleveland Board of Education v. Laudermill, 470
U.S. 532 (1985)). Accordingly, her holding was
that the Bill of Rights of the United States
Constitution must be applied despite authority
granted by the AUMF. She stated that: It is
during our most challenging and uncertain moments
that our Nation’s commitment to due process is
most severely tested; and it is in those times
that we must preserve our commitment at home to
the principles for which we fight abroad. * * * *
Any process in which the Executive’s factual
assertions go wholly unchallenged or are simply
presumed correct without any opportunity for the
alleged combatant to demonstrate otherwise falls
constitutionally short. Hamdi, 542 U.S. at 532,
537. Under Hamdi, accordingly, the Constitution
of the United States must be followed. The AUMF
resolution, if indeed it is construed as replacing FISA, gives no support t=
o
Defendants here. Even if that Resolution
superceded all other statutory law, Defendants
have violated the Constitutional rights of their
citizens including the First Amendment, Fourth
Amendment, and the Separation of Powers doctrine.
IX. Inherent Power
Article II of the United States Constitution
provides that any citizen of appropriate birth,
age and residency may be elected to the Office of
President of the United States and be vested with
the executive power of this nation.48
The duties and powers of the Chief Executive are
carefully listed, including the duty to be
Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the
United States,49 and the Presidential Oath of
Office is set forth in the Constitution and
requires him to swear or affirm that he “will, to
the best of my ability, preserve, protect and
defend the Constitution of the United States.”50
The Government appears to argue here that,
pursuant to the penumbra of Constitutional
language in Article II, and particularly because
the President is designated Commander in Chief of
the Army and Navy, he has been granted the
inherent power to violate not only the laws of
the Congress but the First and Fourth Amendments of the Constitution, itsel=
f.
We must first note that the Office of the Chief
Executive has itself been created, with its
powers, by the Constitution. There are no
hereditary Kings in America and no powers not
created by the Constitution. So all “inherent
powers” must derive from that Constitution.
We have seen in Hamdi that the Fifth Amendment of
the United States Constitution is fully
applicable to the Executive branch’s actions and
therefore it can only follow that the First and
Fourth Amendments must be applicable as
well.51 In the Youngstown case the same
“inherent powers” argument was raised and the
Court noted that the President had been created Commander in Chief
48U.S. CONST. art. II, § 5
49U.S. CONST. art. II, § 2[1]
50U.S. CONST. art. II, § 1[8]
51See generally Hamdi, 542 U.S. 507 (2004)
of only the military, and not of all the people,
even in time of war.52 Indeed, since Ex Parte
Milligan, we have been taught that the
“Constitution of the United States is a law for
rulers and people, equally in war and in peace. .
. .” Ex Parte Milligan, 71 U.S. (4 Wall.) 2, 120
(1866). Again, in Home Building & Loan Ass’n v.
Blaisdell, we were taught that no emergency can create power.53
Finally, although the Defendants have suggested
the unconstitutionality of FISA, it appears to
this court that that question is here
irrelevant. Not only FISA, but the Constitution
itself has been violated by the Executive’s TSP.
As the court states in Falvey, even where
statutes are not explicit, the requirements of
the Fourth Amendment must still be met.54 And of
course, the Zweibon opinion of Judge Skelly
Wright plainly states that although many cases
hold that the President’s power to obtain foreign
intelligence information is vast, none suggest
that he is immune from Constitutional requirements.55
The argument that inherent powers justify the
program here in litigation must fail.
X. Practical Justifications for Exemption
First, it must be remembered that both Title III
and FISA permit delayed applications for
warrants, after surveillance has begun. Also,
the case law has long permitted law enforcement
action to proceed in cases in which the lives of
officers or others are threatened in cases of
“hot pursuit”, border searches, school locker
searches, or where emergency situations
exist. See generally Warden v. Hayden, 387 U.S.
294 (1967); Veronia School District v. Acton, 515 U.S. 646
52See generally Youngstown, 343 U.S. 579 (1952)
53See generally Home Building & Loan Ass’n v. Blaisdell, 290 U.S. 398 (19=
34)
54See generally Falvey, 540 F. Supp. 1306 (E.D.N.Y. 1982)
55See generally Zweibon, 516 F.2d 594 (D.C. Circ. 1975)
(1995); and Michigan Department of State Police v. Sitz, 496 U.S. 444 (1990=
).
Indeed, in Zweibon, Judge Wright enumerates a
number of Defendants’ practical arguments here
(including judicial competence, danger of
security leaks, less likelihood of criminal
prosecution, delay, and the burden placed upon
both the courts and the Executive branch by
compliance) and finds, after long and careful
analysis, that none constitutes adequate
justification for exemption from the requirements
of either FISA or the Fourth Amendment. Zweibon,
516 F.2d at 641. It is noteworthy, in this
regard, that Defendants here have sought no
Congressional amendments which would remedy practical difficulty.
As long ago as the Youngstown case, the Truman
administration argued that the cumbersome
procedures required to obtain warrants made the
process unworkable.56 The Youngstown court made
short shift of that argument and, it appears, the
present Defendants’ need for speed and agility is
equally weightless. The Supreme Court in the
Keith57, as well as the Hamdi58 cases, has
attempted to offer helpful solutions to the delay problem, all to no avail.
XI. Conclusion
For all of the reasons outlined above, this court
is constrained to grant to Plaintiffs the Partial
Summary Judgment requested, and holds that the
TSP violates the APA; the Separation of Powers
doctrine; the First and Fourth Amendments of the
United States Constitution; and the statutory law.
Defendants’ Motion to Dismiss the final claim of
data-mining is granted, because litigation of
that claim would require violation of Defendants’ state secrets privilege=
.
56See generally Youngstown, 343 U.S. 579 (1952)
57See generally U.S. v. U.S. District Court, 407 U.S. 297 (1972)
58See generally Hamdi, 542 U.S. 507 (2004)
The Permanent Injunction of the TSP requested by
Plaintiffs is granted inasmuch as each of the
factors required to be met to sustain such an
injunction have undisputedly been met.59 The
irreparable injury necessary to warrant
injunctive relief is clear, as the First and
Fourth Amendment rights of Plaintiffs are
violated by the TSP. See Dombrowski v. Pfister,
380 U.S. 479 (1965). The irreparable injury
conversely sustained by Defendants under this
injunction may be rectified by compliance with
our Constitution and/or statutory law, as amended
if necessary. Plaintiffs have prevailed, and the
public interest is clear, in this matter. It is
the upholding of our Constitution.
As Justice Warren wrote in U.S. v. Robel, 389 U.S. 258 (1967):
Implicit in the term ‘national defense’ is the notion of defending
those values and ideas which set this Nation apart. . . . It would
indeed be ironic if, in the name of national defense, we would
sanction the subversion of . . . those liberties . . . which makes the
defense of the Nation worthwhile. Id. at 264.
IT IS SO ORDERED.
Date: August 17, 2006 s/Anna Diggs Taylor
Detroit, Michigan ANNA DIGGS TAYLOR UNITED STATES DISTRICT JUDGE
59It is well-settled that a plaintiff seeking a
permanent injunction must demonstrate: (1) that
it has suffered an irreparable injury; (2) that
remedies available at law, such as monetary
damages, are inadequate to compensate for that
injury; (3) that, considering the balance of
hardships between the plaintiff and defendant, a
remedy in equity is warranted; and (4) that the
public interest would not be disserved by a
permanent injunction. eBay Inc. v. MercExchange,
L.L.C. 126 S.Ct. 1837, 1839 (2006). Further, “[a]
party is entitled to a permanent injunction if it
can establish that it suffered a constitutional
violation and will suffer “continuing irreparable injury” for which the=
re is
no adequate remedy at law.” Women's Medical
Professional Corp. v. Baird, 438 F.3d 595, 602 (6th Cir. 2006).
CERTIFICATE OF SERVICE
The undersigned certifies that the foregoing
Memorandum Order was served upon counsel of
record via the Court's ECF System to their
respective email addresses or First Class U.S.
mail disclosed on the Notice of Electronic Filing on August 17, 2006.
s/Johnetta M. Curry-Williams Case Manager
We Hunt Spies, We Stop Espionage, We Kill Bugs, and We Plug Leaks.
James M. Atkinson, President and Sr. Engineer
Granite Island Group
127 Eastern Avenue #291
Gloucester, MA 01930-8008
Phone: (978) 546-3803
Fax: (978) 546-9467
Web: <
http://www.tscm.com/>
http://www.tscm.com/
E-Mail: <mailto:jm..._at_tscm.com>jm..._at_tscm.com
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<body>
What a country!!!<br><br>
Only in the United States could a small number of citizens use the legal
system to shutdown a multi-billion dollar illegal program such as
this.<br><br>
-jma<br><br>
<br><br>
<a href="
http://www.mied.uscourts.gov/eGov/taylorpdf/06%2010204.pdf" eudo=
ra="autourl">
http://www.mied.uscourts.gov/eGov/taylorpdf/06%2010204.pdf</a><br><br>
UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT<br>
EASTERN DISTRICT OF MICHIGAN<br>
SOUTHERN DIVISION<br><br>
AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION; <br>
AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION <br>
FOUNDATION; AMERICAN CIVIL <br>
LIBERTIES UNION OF MICHIGAN; <br>
COUNCIL ON AMERICAN-ISLAMIC Case No. 06-CV-10204 <br>
RELATIONS; COUNCIL ON AMERICAN <br>
ISLAMIC RELATIONS MICHIGAN; Hon. Anna Diggs Taylor <br>
GREENPEACE, INC.; NATIONAL <br>
ASSOCIATION OF CRIMINAL DEFENSE <br>
LAWYERS; JAMES BAMFORD; LARRY <br>
DIAMOND; CHRISTOPHER HITCHENS; <br>
TARA MCKELVEY; and BARNETT R. RUBIN, <br>
Plaintiffs, <br><br>
v. <br>
NATIONAL SECURITY AGENCY / CENTRAL SECURITY SERVICE; and LIEUTENANT
GENERAL KEITH B. ALEXANDER, in his official capacity as Director of the
National Security Agency and Chief of the Central Security Service, <br>
Defendants. <br>
_______________________________________________________/ <br>
MEMORANDUM OPINION <br>
I. Introduction <br>
This is a challenge to the legality of a secret program (hereinafter
“TSP”) undisputedly inaugurated by the National Security Agency
(hereinafter “NSA”) at least by 2002 and continuing today, which
intercepts without benefit of warrant or other judicial approval, prior
or subsequent, the international telephone and internet communications of
numerous persons and organizations within this country. The TSP has been
acknowledged by this Administration to have been authorized by the
President’s secret order during 2002 and reauthorized at least thirty
times since.1 <br>
Plaintiffs are a group of persons and organizations who, according to
their affidavits, are defined by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance
Act (hereinafter “FISA”) as “U.S. persons.”2 They conducted r=
egular
international telephone and internet communications for various
uncontestedly legitimate reasons including journalism, the practice of
law, and scholarship. Many of their communications are and have
been with persons in the Middle East. Each Plaintiff has alleged a
“well founded belief” that he, she, or it, has been subjected to
Defendants’ interceptions, and that the TSP not only injures them
specifically and directly, but that the TSP substantially chills and
impairs their constitutionally protected communications. Persons
abroad who before the program spoke with them by telephone or internet
will no longer do so. <br>
Plaintiffs have alleged that the TSP violates their free speech and
associational rights, as guaranteed by the First Amendment of the United
States Constitution; their privacy rights, as guaranteed by the Fourth
Amendment of the United States Constitution; the principle of the
Separation of Powers because the TSP has been authorized by the President
in excess of his Executive Power under Article II of the United States
Constitution, and that it specifically violates the statutory limitations
placed upon such interceptions by the Congress in FISA because it is
conducted without observation of any of the procedures required by law,
either statutory or Constitutional. <br>
Before the Court now are several motions filed by both sides.
Plaintiffs have requested a <br>
1Available at
<a href="
http://www.white-house.gov//news/releases/2005/12/20051219-2.htm=
l" eudora="autourl">
http://www.white-house.gov//news/releases/2005/12/20051219-2.html</a>
<br>
2Pub. L. 95-511, Title I, 92 Stat 1976 (Oct. 25, 1978), codified as
amended at 50 U.S.C. §§ 1801 et seq. <br>
permanent injunction, alleging that they sustain irreparable damage
because of the continued existence of the TSP. Plaintiffs also request a
Partial Summary Judgment holding that the TSP violates the Administrative
Procedures Act (“APA”); the Separation of Powers doctrine; the First an=
d
Fourth Amendments of the United States Constitution, and the statutory
law. <br>
Defendants have moved to dismiss this lawsuit, or in the alternative for
Summary Judgment, on the basis of the state secrets evidentiary privilege
and Plaintiffs’ lack of standing. <br><br>
II. State Secrets Privilege <br>
Defendants argue that the state secrets privilege bars Plaintiffs’ claims
because Plaintiffs cannot establish standing or a prima facie case for
any of their claims without the use of state secrets. Further, Defendants
argue that they cannot defend this case without revealing state secrets.
For the reasons articulated below, the court rejects Defendants’ argument
with respect to Plaintiffs’ claims challenging the TSP. The court,
however, agrees with Defendants with respect to Plaintiffs’ data- mining
claim and grants Defendants’ motion for summary judgment on that claim.
<br>
The state secrets privilege is an evidentiary rule developed to prevent
the disclosure of information which may be detrimental to national
security. There are two distinct lines of cases covering the
privilege. In the first line of cases the doctrine is more of a rule of
“non-justiciability because it deprives courts of their ability to hear
suits against the Government based on covert espionage agreements.”
El-Masri v. Tenet, 2006 WL 1391390 at 7 (E.D.Va., 2006). The seminal
decision in this line of cases is Totten v. United States 92 U.S. 105
(1875). In Totten, the plaintiff brought suit against the government
seeking payment for espionage services he had provided during the Civil
War. In affirming the dismissal of the case, Justice Field wrote:
<br>
The secrecy which such contracts impose precludes any action for their
enforcement. The publicity produced by an action would itself <br>
3 <br>
be a breach of a contract of that kind, and thus defeat a recovery.
Totten, 92 U.S. at 107. The Supreme Court reaffirmed Totten in Tenet v.
Doe, 544 U.S. 1, (2005). In Tenet, the plaintiffs, who were former Cold
War spies, brought estoppel and due process claims against the United
States and the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (hereinafter
“CIA”) for the CIA’s alleged failure to provide them with the assista=
nce
it had allegedly promised in return for their espionage services.
Tenet, 544 U.S. at 3. Relying heavily on Totten, the Court held that the
plaintiffs claims were barred. Delivering the opinion for a
unanimous Court, Chief Justice <br>
Rehnquist wrote: We adhere to Totten. The state secrets privilege and the
more frequent use of in camera judicial proceedings simply cannot provide
the absolute protection we found necessary in enunciating the Totten
rule. The possibility that a suit may proceed and an espionage
relationship may be revealed, if the state secrets privilege is found not
to apply, is unacceptable: “Even a small chance that some court will
order disclosure of a source’s identity could well impair intelligence
gathering and cause sources to ‘close up like a clam.’” (citations
omitted). Tenet, 544 U.S. at 11. <br>
The second line of cases deals with the exclusion of evidence because of
the state secrets privilege. In United States v. Reynolds, 345 U.S. 1
(1953), the plaintiffs were the widows of three civilians who died in the
crash of a B-29 aircraft. Id. at 3-4. The plaintiffs brought suit
under the Tort Claims Act and sought the production of the Air Force’s
official accident investigation report and the statements of the three
surviving crew members. Id. The Government asserted the
states secret privilege to resist the discovery of this information,
because the aircraft in question and those aboard were engaged in a
highly secret mission of the Air Force. Id. at 4. In discussing the
state secrets privilege and its application, Chief Justice Vinson stated:
<br>
The privilege belongs to the Government and must be asserted by it; <br>
4 <br>
it can neither be claimed nor waived by a private party. It is not
to be lightly invoked. There must be formal claim of privilege, lodged by
the head of the department which has control over the matter, after
actual personal consideration by that officer. The court itself
must determine whether the circumstances are appropriate for the claim of
privilege, and yet do so without forcing a disclosure of the very thing
the privilege is designed to protect. Reynolds, 345 U.S. at 8. <br>
The Chief Justice further wrote: In each case, the showing of necessity
which is made will determine how far the court should probe in satisfying
itself that the occasion for invoking the privilege is appropriate. Where
there is a strong showing of necessity, the claim of privilege should not
be lightly accepted, but even the most compelling necessity cannot
overcome the claim of privilege if the court is ultimately satisfied that
military <br>
secrets are at stake. Reynolds, 345 U.S. at 11. The Court sustained the
Government’s claim of privilege, finding the plaintiffs’ “necessity=
” for
the privileged information was “greatly minimized” by the fact that the
plaintiffs had an available alternative. Reynolds, 345 U.S. at 11.
Moreover, the Court found that there was nothing to suggest that the
privileged information had a “causal connection with the accident” and
that the plaintiffs could “adduce the essential facts as to causation
without resort to material touching upon military secrets.” Id. <br>
In Halkin v. Helms, 598 F.2d 1 (D.C.Cir.1978) (Halkin I ), the District
of Columbia Circuit Court applied the holding in Reynolds in a case in
which the plaintiffs, Vietnam War protestors, alleged that the
defendants, former and present members of the NSA, the CIA, Defense
Intelligence Agency, the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Secret
Service engaged in warrantless surveillance of their international wire,
cable and telephone communications with the cooperation of
telecommunications providers. Id. at 3. The telecommunications providers
were also named as defendants. Id. The plaintiffs specifically challenged
the legality of two separate NSA surveillance operations undertaken from
1967 to 1973 named operation MINARET and operation SHAMROCK.3 Id. at 4.
<br>
The Government asserted the state secrets privilege and moved for
dismissal for the following reasons: (1) discovery would “confirm the
identity of individuals or organizations whose foreign communications
were acquired by NSA”; (2) discovery would lead to the disclosure of
“dates and contents of such communications”; or (3) discovery would
“divulge the methods and techniques by which the communications were
acquired.” Halkin, 598 F.2d at 4-5. The district court held that the
plaintiffs’ claims against operation MINARET had to be dismissed “becau=
se
the ultimate issue, the fact of acquisition, could neither be admitted
nor denied.” Id. at 5. The district court, however, denied the
Government’s motion to dismiss the plaintiffs’ claims regarding operati=
on
SHAMROCK, because it “thought congressional committees investigating
intelligence matters had revealed so much information about operation
SHAMROCK that such a disclosure would pose no threat to the NSA mission.”
Id. at 10. <br>
On appeal, the District of Columbia Circuit Court affirmed the district
court’s dismissal of the plaintiffs’ claims with respect to operation
MINARET but reversed the court’s ruling with respect to operation
SHAMROCK. In reversing the district court ruling regarding SHAMROCK, the
circuit court stated: <br>
. . . we think the affidavits and testimony establish the validity of the
state secrets claim with respect to both SHAMROCK and MINARET
acquisitions; our reasoning applies to both. There is a “reasonable
danger”, (citation omitted) that confirmation or denial that a particular
plaintiff's communications have been acquired would <br>
3Operation MINARET was part of the NSA’s regular intelligence activity in
which foreign electronic signals were monitored. Operation SHAMROCK
involved the processing of all telegraphic traffic leaving or entering
the United States. Hepting v. AT & T Corp 2006 WL 2038464
(N.D.Cal.2006) quoting Halkin. <br>
disclose NSA capabilities and other valuable intelligence information to
a sophisticated intelligence analyst. Halkin, 598 F.2d at 10. The case
was remanded to the district court and it dismissed the plaintiffs’
claims against the NSA and the individuals connected with the NSA’s
alleged monitoring. Halkin v. Helms, 690 F.2d 977, 984 (D.C.
Cir.1982) (Halkin II). In Halkin II, 690 F.2d 977, the court addressed
plaintiffs’ remaining claims against the CIA, which the district court
dismissed because of the state secrets privilege. In affirming the
district <br>
court’s ruling, the District of Columbia Circuit stated: It is
self-evident that the disclosures sought here pose a “reasonable danger=
”
to the diplomatic and military interests of the United States. Revelation
of particular instances in which foreign governments assisted the CIA in
conducting surveillance of dissidents could strain diplomatic relations
in a number of ways-by generally embarrassing foreign governments who may
wish to avoid or may even explicitly disavow allegations of CIA or United
States involvements, or by rendering foreign governments or their
officials subject to political or legal action by those among their own
citizens who may have been subjected to surveillance in the course of
dissident activity. Halkin II, 690 F.2d at 993. <br>
Ellsberg v. Mitchell, 709 F.2d 51 (D.C. Cir.1983) was yet another case
where the District of Columbia Circuit dealt with the state secrets
privilege being raised in the defense of a claim of illegal wiretapping.
In Ellsberg, the plaintiffs, the defendants and attorneys in the
“Pentagon Papers” criminal prosecution brought suit when, during the
course of that litigation, they discovered “that one or more of them had
been the subject of warrantless electronic surveillance by the federal
Government.” Id. at 51. The defendants admitted to two wiretaps but
refused to respond to some of the plaintiffs’ interrogatories, asserting
the state secrets privilege. Id. at 54. The plaintiffs sought an order
compelling the information and the district court denied the motion,
sustaining the Government’s assertion of the state secrets
privilege. Id. at 56. Further, the court dismissed the plaintiffs’
claims that pertained “to surveillance of their foreign
communications.” Ellsberg v. Mitchell, 709 F.2d at 56. <br>
On appeal, the District of Columbia Circuit reversed the district court
with respect to the plaintiffs’ claims regarding the Government’s
admitted wiretaps, because there was no reason to “suspend the general
rule that the burden is on those seeking an exemption from the Fourth
Amendment warrant requirement to show the need for it.” Ellsberg,
709 F.2d at 68. With respect to the application of the state secrets
privilege, the court stated: <br>
When properly invoked, the state secrets privilege is absolute. No
competing public or private interest can be advanced to compel disclosure
of information found to be protected by a claim of privilege. However,
because of the broad sweep of the privilege, the Supreme Court has made
clear that “[i]t is not to be lightly invoked.” Thus, the privilege may
not be used to shield any material not strictly necessary to prevent
injury to national security; and, whenever possible, sensitive
information must be disentangled from nonsensitive information to allow
for the release of the latter. Ellsberg, 709 F.2d at 56. <br>
In Kasza v. Browner, 133 F.3d 1159 (9th Cir.1998), the plaintiffs, former
employees at a classified United States Air Force facility, filed suit
against the Air Force and the Environmental Protection Agency under the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, alleging violations at the
classified facility. Id. at 1162. The district court granted
summary judgment against the plaintiffs, because discovery of information
necessary for the proof of the plaintiffs’ claims was impossible due to
the state secrets privilege. Id. In affirming the district court’s
grant of summary judgment against one of the plaintiffs, the Ninth
Circuit stated: <br>
Not only does the state secrets privilege bar [the plaintiff] from
establishing her prima facie case on any of her eleven claims, but any
further proceeding in this matter would jeopardize national security. No
protective procedure can salvage [the plaintiff’s] suit. Kasza, 133 F.3d
at 1170. <br>
The Kasza court also explained that “[t]he application of the state
secrets privilege can have . . . three effects.” Kasza, 133 F.3d at 1166.
First, when the privilege is properly invoked “over particular evidence,
the evidence is completely removed from the case.” Id. The
plaintiff’s case, however, may proceed “based on evidence not covered b=
y
the privilege.” Id. “If . . . the plaintiff cannot prove the prima faci=
e
elements of her claim with nonprivileged evidence, then the court may
dismiss her claim as it would with any plaintiff who cannot prove her
case.” Id. Second, summary judgement may be granted, “if the
privilege deprives the defendant of information that would otherwise give
the defendant a valid defense to the claim.” Id. Lastly,
“notwithstanding the plaintiff's ability to produce nonprivileged
evidence, if the ‘very subject matter of the action’ is a state secret,
then the court should dismiss the plaintiff's action based solely on the
invocation of the state secrets privilege.” Id. <br>
The Sixth Circuit delivered its definitive opinion regarding the states
secrets privilege, in Tenenbaum v. Simonini, 372 F.3d 776 (6th Cir.
2004). In that case, the plaintiffs sued the United States and various
employees of federal agencies, alleging that the defendants engaged in
criminal espionage investigation of the plaintiff, David Tenenbaum,
because he was Jewish. Id. at 777. The defendants moved for summary
judgment, arguing that they could not defend themselves against the
plaintiffs’ “claims without disclosing information protected by the sta=
te
secrets doctrine.” Id. The district court granted the
defendants’ motion and the Sixth Circuit affirmed stating: <br>
We further conclude that Defendants cannot defend their conduct with
respect to Tenenbaum without revealing the privileged information.
Because the state secrets doctrine thus deprives Defendants of a valid
defense to the Tenenbaums’ claims, we find that the district court
properly dismissed the claims. Tenenbaum, 372 F.3d at 777. <br>
Predictably, the War on Terror of this administration has produced a vast
number of cases, in which the state secrets privilege has been
invoked.4 In May of this year, a district court in the Eastern
District of Virginia addressed the state secrets privilege in El-Masri v.
Tenet, 2006 WL 1391390, (E.D. Va. May 12, 2006). In El Masri, the
plaintiff, a German citizen of Lebanese descent, sued the former director
of the CIA and others, for their alleged involvement in a program called
Extraordinary Rendition. Id. at 1. The court dismissed the plaintiff’s
claims, because they could not be fairly litigated without the disclosure
of state secrets.5 Id. at 6. <br>
In Hepting v. AT & T Corp., 2006 WL 2038464, (E.D. Cal. June 20,
2006), which is akin to our inquiry in the instant case, the plaintiffs
brought suit, alleging that AT & T Corporation was collaborating with
the NSA in a warrantless surveillance program, which illegally tracked
the domestic and foreign communications and communication records of
millions of Americans. Id. at 1. The United States intervened and
moved that the case be dismissed based on the state secrets privilege.
Id. Before applying the privilege to the plaintiffs’ claims, the
court first examined the information that had already been exposed to the
public, which is essentially the same information that has been revealed
in the instant case. District Court Judge Vaughn Walker found that
the Government had admitted: <br>
. . . it monitors “contents of communications where * * * one party to
the communication is outside the United States and the government has a
reasonable basis to conclude that one party to the communication is a
member of al Qaeda, affiliated with al Qaeda, or a member of an
organization affiliated with al Qaeda, or working in support of al
Qaeda.” (citations omitted). Hepting, 2006 WL <br>
4In Terkel v. AT & T Corp., 2006 WL 2088202 (N.D. Ill. July 25,
2006), the plaintiffs alleged that AT&T provided information
regarding their telephone calls and internet communications to the
NSA. Id. at 1. District Court Judge Matthew F. Kennely dismissed
the case because the state secrets privilege made it impossible for the
plaintiffs to establish standing. Id. at 20. <br>
5Further, the court was not persuaded by the plaintiff’s argument that
the privilege was negated because the Government had admitted that the
rendition program existed because it found the Government’s admissions to
be without details. <br>
2038464, at 19. Accordingly Judge Walker reasoned that “[b]ased on these
public disclosures,” the court could not “conclude that the existence o=
f
a certification regarding the ‘communication content’ program is a stat=
e
secret.” Id. <br>
Defendants’ assertion of the privilege without any request for answers to
any discovery has prompted this court to first analyze this case under
Totten/Tenet, since it appears that Defendants are arguing that this case
should not be subject to judicial review. As discussed supra, the
Totten/Tenet cases provide an absolute bar to any kind of judicial
review. Tenet, 544 U.S. at 8. This rule should not be applied in
the instant case, however, since the rule applies to actions where there
is a secret espionage relationship between the Plaintiff and the
Government. Id. at 7-8. It is undisputed that Plaintiffs’ do not
claim to be parties to a secret espionage relationship with Defendants.
Accordingly, the court finds the Totten/Tenet rule is not applicable to
the instant case. The state secrets privilege belongs exclusively to the
Executive Branch and thus, it is appropriately invoked by the head of the
Executive Branch agency with control over the secrets involved. Reynolds,
345 U.S. at 1. In the instant case, the court is satisfied that the
privilege was properly invoked. Defendants’ publicly-filed affidavits
from Director of National Intelligence John D. Negroponte and Signal
Intelligence Director, NSA Major General Richard J. Quirk, set forth
facts supporting the Government’s contention that the state secrets
privilege and other legal doctrines required dismissal of the case.
Additionally, Defendants filed classified versions of these declarations
ex parte and in camera for this court’s review. Defendants also filed ex
parte and in camera versions of its brief along with other classified
materials, further buttressing its assertion of the privilege. Plaintiffs
concede that the public declaration from Director Negroponte satisfies
the procedural requirements set forth in Reynolds. Therefore, this court
concludes that the privilege has been appropriately invoked. <br>
Defendants argue that Plaintiffs’ claims must be dismissed because
Plaintiffs cannot establish standing or a prima facie case for any of its
claims without the disclosure of state secrets. Moreover,
Defendants argue that even if Plaintiffs are able to establish a prima
facie case without revealing protected information, Defendants would be
unable to defend this case without the disclosure of such
information. Plaintiffs argue that Defendants’ invocation of the
state secrets privilege is improper with respect to their challenges to
the TSP, since no additional facts are necessary or relevant to the
summary adjudication of this case. Alternatively, Plaintiffs argue,
that even if the court finds that the privilege was appropriately
asserted, the court should use creativity and care to devise
methods which would protect the privilege but allow the case to
proceed. <br>
The “next step in the judicial inquiry into the validity of the assertion
of the privilege is to determine whether the information for which the
privilege is claimed qualifies as a state secret.” El Masri, 2006 WL
1391390, at 4. Again, the court acknowledges that it has reviewed
all of the materials Defendants submitted ex parte and in camera. After
reviewing these materials, the court is convinced that the privilege
applies “because a reasonable danger exists that disclosing the
information in court proceedings would harm national security interests,
or would impair national defense capabilities, disclose
intelligence-gathering methods or capabilities, or disrupt diplomatic
relations with foreign governments.” Tenenbaum, 372 F.3d at 777.
<br>
Plaintiffs, however, maintain that this information is not relevant to
the resolution of their claims, since their claims regarding the TSP are
based solely on what Defendants have publicly admitted. Indeed,
although the instant case appears factually similar to Halkin, in that
they both involve plaintiffs challenging the legality of warrantless
wiretapping, a key distinction can be drawn. Unlike Halkin or any of the
cases in the Reynolds progeny, Plaintiffs here are not seeking any
additional discovery to establish their claims challenging the TSP.6
<br>
Like Judge Walker in Hepting, this court recognizes that simply because a
factual statement has been made public it does not necessarily follow
that it is true. Hepting, 2006 WL 2038464 at <br>
12. Hence, “in determining whether a factual statement is a secret, the
court considers only public admissions or denials by the
[G]overnment.” Id. at 13. It is undisputed that Defendants have
publicly admitted to the following: (1) the TSP exists; (2) it
operates without warrants; (3) it targets communications where one party
to the communication is outside the United States, and the government has
a reasonable basis to conclude that one party to the communication is a
member of al Qaeda, affiliated with al Qaeda, or a member of an
organization affiliated with al Qaeda, or working in support of al Qaeda.
As the Government has on many occasions confirmed the veracity of these
allegations, the state secrets privilege does not apply to this
information. <br>
Contrary to Defendants’ arguments, the court is persuaded that Plaintiffs
are able to establish a prima facie case based solely on Defendants’
public admissions regarding the TSP. Plaintiffs’ declarations
establish that their communications would be monitored under the TSP.7
Further, Plaintiffs have shown that because of the existence of the TSP,
they have suffered a real and concrete harm. Plaintiffs’
declarations state undisputedly that they are stifled in their ability to
<br>
6In Halkin, the plaintiffs were requesting that the Government answer
interrogatories and sought to depose the secretary of defense. Halkin,
598 F.2d at 6. <br>
7See generally, in a Declaration, attorney Nancy Hollander stated that
she frequently engages in <br>
international communications with individuals who have alleged
connections with terrorist organizations. (Exh. J, Hollander
). Attorney William Swor also provided a similar declaration. (Exh.
L, Swor Decl. ). Journalist Tara McKelvey declared that she has
international communications with sources who are suspected of helping
the <br>
insurgents in Iraq. (Exh. K, McKelvey Decl.). <br>
vigorously conduct research, interact with sources, talk with clients
and, in the case of the attorney Plaintiffs, uphold their oath of
providing effective and ethical representation of their clients.8
In addition, Plaintiffs have the additional injury of incurring
substantial travel expenses as a result of having to travel and meet with
clients and others relevant to their cases. Therefore, the court
finds that Plaintiffs need no additional facts to establish a prima facie
case for any of their claims questioning the legality of the TSP.
<br>
The court, however, is convinced that Plaintiffs cannot establish a prima
facie case to support their data- mining claims without the use of
privileged information and further litigation of this issue would
force the disclosure of the very thing the privilege is designed to
protect. Therefore, the court grants Defendants’ motion for summary
judgment with respect to this claim. <br>
Finally, Defendants assert that they cannot defend this case without the
exposure of state secrets. This court disagrees. The Bush Administration
has repeatedly told the general public that there is a valid basis in law
for the TSP.9 Further, Defendants have contended that the President has
the authority under the AUMF and the Constitution to authorize the
continued use of the TSP. Defendants have supported these arguments
without revealing or relying on any classified information. Indeed,
the court has reviewed the classified information and is of the opinion
that this information is not necessary to any viable defense to the
TSP. Defendants have presented support <br>
8Plaintiffs’ Statement of Undisputed Facts (hereinafter “SUF”) SUF 15
(Exh. J, Hollander Decl. ¶¶12, 16, 25; Exh. L, Swor Decl. ¶¶9, 11-1=
2,
14-16);Plaintiffs;’ Reply Memorandum in Support of Plaintiffs’ Motion f=
or
Partial Summary Judgment (hereinafter “Pl.’s Reply”) (Exh. P,
Dratel Decl. ¶¶9-11; Exh. Q, Abdrabboh Decl. ¶¶7-8; Exh. R. Ayad. D=
ecl.
¶¶ 4, 6-8); (Exh. M Niehoff Decl. ¶¶ 12 ). <br>
9On December 17, 2005, in a radio address, President Bush stated: <br>
In the weeks following the terrorist attacks on our nation, I authorized
the National Security Agency, consistent with U.S. law and the
Constitution, to intercept the international communications of people
with known links to al Qaeda and related terrorist organizations.
<a href="
http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/12/20051217.html" e=
udora="autourl">
http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/12/20051217.html</a> <br>
for the argument that “it . . is well-established that the
President may exercise his statutory and constitutional authority to
gather intelligence information about foreign enemies.”10 Defendants cite
to various sources to support this position. Consequently, the court
finds Defendants’ argument that they cannot defend this case without the
use of classified information to be disingenuous and without merit.
<br>
In sum, the court holds that the state secrets privilege applies to
Plaintiffs’ data-mining claim and that claim is dismissed. The
privilege, however, does not apply to Plaintiffs’ remaining claims
challenging the validity of the TSP, since Plaintiffs are not relying on
or requesting any classified information to support these claims and
Defendants do not need any classified information to mount a defense
against these claims.11 <br><br>
III. Standing <br>
Defendants argue that Plaintiffs do not establish their standing.
They contend that Plaintiffs’ claim here is merely a subjective fear of
surveillance which falls short of the type of injury necessary to
establish standing. They argue that Plaintiffs’ alleged injuries are too
tenuous to be recognized, not “distinct and palpable” nor “concrete a=
nd
particularized.” <br>
Article III of the U.S. Constitution limits the federal court’s
jurisdiction to “cases” and “controversies”. Lujan v. Defenders of
Wildlife, 504 U.S. 555, 560 (1992). To have a genuine case or
controversy, the plaintiff must establish standing. “[T]he core
component of standing is an essential and unchanging part of the
case-or-controversy requirement of Article III.” Lujan v. <br>
10Defendants’ Brief in Support of Summary Judgment pg. 33. <br>
11Defendants also contend that Plaintiffs’ claims are barred because they
properly invoked statutory privileges under the National Security Agency
Act of 1959, 50 U.S.C. § 402 and the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism
Prevention Act of 2004, 50 U.S.C. § 403-(i)(1). Again, these
privileges are not availing to Defendants with respect to Plaintiffs’
claims challenging the TSP, for the same reasons that the state secrets
privilege does not bar these claims. <br>
Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. at 560. To establish standing under
Article III, a plaintiff must satisfy the following three requirements:
(1) “the plaintiff must have suffered an injury in fact - an invasion of
a legally protected interest which is (a) concrete and particularized,
and (b) actual or imminent, not conjectural or hypothetical”; (2) “ther=
e
must be a causal connection between the injury and the conduct complained
of”, and (3) “it must be likely, as opposed to merely speculative, that
the injury will be redressed by a favorable decision.” Id. at
560-561. The party invoking federal jurisdiction bears the burden of
establishing these elements. Id. at 561. <br>
“An association has standing to bring suit on behalf of its members when
its members would otherwise have standing to sue in their own right, the
interests it seeks to protect are germane to the organization’s purpose,
and neither the claim asserted nor the relief requested requires the
participation of individual members in the lawsuit.” Friends of the
Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services (TOC), Inc., 528 U.S. 167,
181 (2000) (citing Hunt v. Washington State Apple Advertising Comm’n, 432
U.S. 333, 342 (1977)).<br>
“At the pleading stage, general factual allegations of injury
resulting from the defendant’s conduct may suffice, for on a motion to
dismiss we ‘presume that general allegations embrace those specific facts
that are necessary to support the claim.’ ” Id. at 561 (quoting Lujan v=
.
National Wildlife Federation, 497 U.S. 871, 889 (1990)). “In response to
a motion for summary judgment, however, the plaintiff can no longer rest
upon such ‘mere allegations,’ but must ‘set forth’ by affidavit or =
other
evidence ‘specific facts’ Fed.R.Civ.Proc. 56(e), which for purposes of
the summary judgment motion will be taken to be true.” Id. This
court is persuaded that Plaintiffs in this case have set forth the
necessary facts to have satisfied all three of the prerequisites listed
above to establish standing. <br>
To determine whether Plaintiffs have standing to challenge the
constitutionality of the TSP, we must examine the nature of the
injury-in-fact which they have alleged. “The injury must be ...
‘distinct and palpable,’ and not ‘abstract’ or ‘conjectural’ or
‘hypothetical.’” National Rifle Association of America v. Magaw, 132 =
F.3d
272, 280 (6th Cir. 1997) (citing Allen v. Wright, 468 U.S 737, 751
(1982)). <br>
Plaintiffs here contend that the TSP has interfered with their ability to
carry out their professional responsibilities in a variety of ways,
including that the TSP has had a significant impact on their ability to
talk with sources, locate witnesses, conduct scholarship, engage in
advocacy and communicate with persons who are outside of the United
States, including in the Middle East and Asia. Plaintiffs have submitted
several declarations to that effect. For example, scholars and
journalists such as plaintiffs Tara McKelvey, Larry Diamond, and Barnett
Rubin indicate that they must conduct extensive research in the Middle
East, Africa, and Asia, and must communicate with individuals abroad whom
the United States government believes to be terrorist suspects or to be
associated with terrorist organizations.12 In addition,
attorneys Nancy Hollander, William Swor, Joshua Dratel, Mohammed
Abdrabboh, and Nabih Ayad indicate that they must also communicate with
individuals abroad whom the United States government believes to be
terrorist suspects or to be associated with terrorist organizations,13
and must discuss confidential information over the phone and email with
their international clients.14 All of the Plaintiffs
contend that the TSP has caused clients, witnesses and sources to
discontinue their communications with plaintiffs out of fear that <br>
12SUF 15B (Exh. I, Diamond Decl. ¶9; Exh. K, McKelvey Decl. ¶8-10). 13S=
UF
15B (Exh. J, Hollander Decl. ¶¶12-14, 17-24; Exh. L, Swor Decl. ¶¶5=
-7,
10);Pl.’s Reply ( Exh. M, Dratel Decl. ¶¶5-6; Exh. Q, Abdrabboh Decl.
¶¶3-4; Exh. R, Ayad Decl. ¶¶ 5, 7-9). 14SUF 15 (Exh. J, Hollander D=
ecl.
¶¶12, 16, 25; Exh. L, Swor Decl. ¶¶9, 11-12, 14-16); Pl.’s Reply =
(Exh. P,
Dratel Decl. ¶¶5-6; Exh. Q, Abdrabboh Decl. ¶¶3-4; Exh. R, Ayad Dec=
l. ¶¶
6-7). 17 <br>
their communications will be intercepted.15 They also allege injury based
on the increased financial burden they incur in having to travel
substantial distances to meet personally with their clients and others
relevant to their cases.16 <br>
The ability to communicate confidentially is an indispensable part of the
attorney-client relationship. As University of Michigan legal ethics
professor Leonard Niehoff explains, attorney-client confidentiality is
“central to the functioning of the attorney-client relationship and to
effective representation.”17 He further explains that Defendants’
TSP “creates an overwhelming, if not insurmountable, obstacle to
effective and ethical representation” and that although Plaintiffs are
resorting to other “inefficient” means for gathering information, the T=
SP
continues to cause “substantial and ongoing harm to the attorney-client
relationships and legal representations.”18 He explains that the
increased risk that privileged communications will be intercepted forces
attorneys to cease telephonic and electronic communications with clients
to fulfill their ethical responsibilities.19 <br>
Defendants argue that the allegations present no more than a “chilling
effect” based upon purely speculative fears that the TSP subjects the
Plaintiffs to surveillance. In arguing that the injuries are not
constitutionally cognizable, Defendants rely heavily on the case of Laird
v. Tatum, 408 U.S. 1 (1972). <br>
15SUF 15 (Exh. J, Hollander Decl. ¶¶12, 16, 25; Exh. L, Swor Decl. ¶=
¶9,
11-12, 14-16);Pl.’s Reply (Exh. P, Dratel Decl. ¶¶9-11; Exh. Q, Abdra=
bboh
Decl. ¶¶7-8; Exh. R. Ayad. Decl. ¶¶ 4, 6-8). 16SUF 15 (Exh. J, Holl=
ander
Decl. ¶¶20, 23-25; Exh. L, Swor Decl. ¶¶13-14); Pl.’s Reply (Exh.=
P,
Dratel Decl. ¶¶9-11; Exh. Q, Abdrabboh Decl. ¶¶7-8; Exh. R, Ayad De=
cl. ¶¶
6-8). 17Pl.’s Reply (Exh. M Niehoff Decl. ¶¶ 12 ) 18Pl.’s Reply (Ex=
h. M
Niehoff Decl. ¶¶ 19-20 ) 19Pl.’s Reply (Exh. M Niehoff Decl. ¶¶ 1=
5-20 )
18 <br>
In Laird, the plaintiffs sought declaratory and injunctive relief on
their claim that their rights were being invaded by the Army’s domestic
surveillance of civil disturbances and “public activities that were
thought to have at least some potential for civil disorder.” Id. at
6. The plaintiffs argued that the surveillance created a chilling effect
on their First Amendment rights caused by the existence and operation of
the surveillance program in general. Id. at 3. The Supreme Court
rejected the plaintiffs’ efforts to rest standing upon the mere “chill=
”
that the program cast upon their associational activities. It said
that the “jurisdiction of a federal court may [not] be invoked by a
complainant who alleges that the exercise of his First Amendment rights
is being chilled by the mere existence, without more, of a governmental
investigative and data-gathering activity.” Id. (emphasis added)
<br>
Laird, however, must be distinguished here. The plaintiffs in Laird
alleged only that they could conceivably become subject to the Army’s
domestic surveillance program. Presbyterian Church v. United
States, 870 F.2d 518, 522 (1989) (citing Laird v. Tatum, 408 U.S at 13)
(emphasis added). The Plaintiffs here are not merely alleging that they
“could conceivably” become subject to surveillance under the TSP, but
that continuation of the TSP has damaged them. The President indeed
has publicly acknowledged that the types of calls Plaintiffs are making
are the types of conversations that would be subject to the TSP.20 <br>
Although Laird establishes that a party’s allegation that it has suffered
a subjective “chill” alone does not confer Article III standing, Laird
does not control this case. As Justice (then Judge) <br>
20In December 2005, the President publicly acknowledged that the TSP
intercepts the contents of certain communications as to which there are
reasonable grounds to believe that (1) the communication originated or
terminated outside the United States, and (2) a party to such
communication is a member of al Qaeda, a member of a group affiliated
with al Qaeda, or an agent of al Qaeda or its affiliates. Available at
<a href="
http://www.whitehouse.gov//news/releases/2005/12/20051219-2.h=
tml" eudora="autourl">
http://www.whitehouse.gov//news/releases/2005/12/20051219-2.html</a>.
<br>
Breyer has observed, “[t]he problem for the government with Laird . . .
lies in the key words ‘without more.’” Ozonoff v. Berzak, 744 F.2d 22=
4,
229 (1st Cir. 1984). This court agrees with Plaintiffs’ position
that “standing here does not rest on the TSP’s ‘mere existence, witho=
ut
more.’” The Plaintiffs in this case are not claiming simply that the
Defendants’ surveillance has “chilled” them from making international
calls to sources and clients. Rather, they claim that Defendants’
surveillance has chilled their sources, clients, and potential witnesses
from communicating with them. The alleged effect on Plaintiffs is a
concrete, actual inability to communicate with witnesses, sources,
clients and others without great expense which has significantly crippled
Plaintiffs, at a minimum, in their ability to report the news and
competently and effectively represent their clients. See Presbyterian
Church v. United States, 870 F.2d 518 (1989) (church suffered substantial
decrease in attendance and participation of individual congregants as a
result of governmental surveillance). Plaintiffs have suffered actual
concrete injuries to their abilities to carry out their professional
responsibilities. The direct injury and objective chill incurred by
Plaintiffs are more than sufficient to place this case outside the
limitations imposed by Laird. <br>
The instant case is more akin to Friends of the Earth, in which the Court
granted standing to environmental groups who sued a polluter under the
Clean Water Act because environmental damage caused by the defendant had
deterred members of the plaintiff organizations from using and enjoying
certain lands and rivers. Friends of the Earth, 528 U.S. at 181-183. The
Court there held that the affidavits and testimony presented by
plaintiffs were sufficient to establish reasonable concerns about the
effects of those discharges and were more than “general averments” and
“conclusory allegations.” Friends of the Earth, 528 U.S. at 183-184. Th=
e
court distinguished the case from Lujan, in which the Court had held that
no actual injury had been established where plaintiffs merely indicated
“‘some day’ intentions to visit endangered species around the world.=
”
Friends of the Earth, 528 U.S. at 184 (quoting Lujan, 504 U.S. at 564).
The court found that the affiants’ conditional statements that they would
use the nearby river for recreation if defendant were not discharging
pollutants into it was sufficient to establish a concrete injury.
Id. at 184. <br>
Here, Plaintiffs are not asserting speculative allegations.
Instead, the declarations asserted by Plaintiffs establish that they are
suffering a present concrete injury in addition to a chill of their First
Amendment rights. Plaintiffs would be able to continue using the
telephone and email in the execution of their professional
responsibilities if the Defendants were not undisputedly and admittedly
conducting warrantless wiretaps of conversations. As in Friends of
the Earth, this damage to their interest is sufficient to establish a
concrete injury. <br>
Numerous cases have granted standing where the plaintiffs have suffered
concrete profession-related injuries comparable to those suffered by
Plaintiffs here. For example, the First Circuit conferred standing
upon claimants who challenged an executive order which required
applicants for employment with the World Health Organization to undergo a
“loyalty” check that included an investigation into the applicant’s
associations and activities. The court there determined that such
an investigation would have a chilling effect on what an applicant says
or does, a sufficient injury to confer standing. Ozonoff, 744 F.2d at
228-229. Similarly, the District of Columbia Circuit Court of
Appeals granted standing to a reshelver of books at the Library of
Congress who was subjected to a full field FBI investigation which
included an inquiry into his political beliefs and associations and
subsequently resulted in his being denied a promotion or any additional
employment opportunities; the court having determined that plaintiff had
suffered a present objective harm, as well as an objective chill of his
First Amendment rights and not merely a potential subjective chill as in
Laird. Also, the Supreme Court in Presbyterian Church v. United States,
granted standing to a church which suffered decreased attendance and
participation when the government actually entered the church to conduct
surveillance. Presbyterian Church, 870 F.2d at 522. Lastly, in
Jabara v. Kelley, 476 F.Supp. 561 (E.D. Mich. 1979), vac’d on other
grounds sub. nom. Jabara v. Webster, 691 F.2d 272 (6th Cir. 1982), the
court held that an attorney had standing to sue to enjoin unlawful FBI
and NSA surveillance which had deterred others from associating with him
and caused “injury to his reputation and legal business.” Id. at
568. <br>
These cases constitute acknowledgment that substantial burdens upon a
plaintiff’s professional activities are an injury sufficient to support
standing. Defendants ignore the significant, concrete injuries
which Plaintiffs continue to experience from Defendants’ illegal
monitoring of their telephone conversations and email
communications. Plaintiffs undeniably have cited to distinct,
palpable, and substantial injuries that have resulted from the TSP. <br>
This court finds that the injuries alleged by Plaintiffs are “concrete
and particularized”, and not “abstract or conjectural.” The TSP is no=
t
hypothetical, it is an actual surveillance program that was admittedly
instituted after September 11, 2001, and has been reauthorized by the
President more than thirty times since the attacks.21
The President has, moreover, emphasized that he intends to continue to
reauthorize the TSP indefinitely.22 Further, the court need not speculate
upon the kind of activity the Plaintiffs want to engage in - they want to
engage in conversations with individuals abroad without fear that their
First Amendment rights are being infringed upon. Therefore, this
court concludes that Plaintiffs have satisfied the requirement of
alleging “actual or threatened <br>
21Available at
<a href="
http://www.white-house.gov//news/releases/2005/12/20051219-2.htm=
l" eudora="autourl">
http://www.white-house.gov//news/releases/2005/12/20051219-2.html<br>
</a>22Id.<br><br>
injury” as a result of Defendants’ conduct. <br>
It must now be determined whether Plaintiffs have shown that there is a
causal connection between the injury and the complained of conduct.
Lujan, 504 U.S. at 560-561. The causal connection between the injury and
the conduct complained of is fairly traceable to the challenged action of
Defendants. The TSP admittedly targets communications originated or
terminated outside the United States where a party to such communication
is in the estimation of Defendants, a member of al Qaeda, a member of a
group affiliated with al Qaeda, or an agent of al Qaeda or its
affiliates.23 The injury to the Plaintiffs stems directly from the TSP
and their injuries can unequivocally be traced to the TSP. <br>
Finally, it is likely that the injury will be redressed by the requested
relief. A determination by this court that the TSP is
unconstitutional and a further determination which enjoins Defendants
from continued warrantless wiretapping in contravention of FISA would
assure Plaintiffs and others that they could freely engage in
conversations and correspond via email without concern, at least without
notice, that such communications were being monitored. The
requested relief would thus redress the injury to Plaintiffs caused by
the TSP. <br>
Although this court is persuaded that Plaintiffs have alleged sufficient
injury to establish standing, it is important to note that if the court
were to deny standing based on the unsubstantiated minor distinctions
drawn by Defendants, the President’s actions in warrantless wiretapping,
in contravention of FISA, Title III, and the First and Fourth Amendments,
would be immunized from judicial scrutiny. It was never the intent of the
Framers to give the President such unfettered control, particularly where
his actions blatantly disregard the parameters clearly enumerated in the
Bill of <br>
23Available at
<a href="
http://www.white-house.gov//news/releases/2005/12/20051219-2.htm=
l" eudora="autourl">
http://www.white-house.gov//news/releases/2005/12/20051219-2.html</a> 23
<br>
Rights. The three separate branches of government were developed as a
check and balance for one another. It is within the court’s duty to
ensure that power is never “condense[d] ... into a single branch of
government.” Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507, 536 (2004) (plurality
opinion). We must always be mindful that “[w]hen the President
takes official action, the Court has the authority to determine whether
he has acted within the law.” Clinton v. Jones, 520 U.S. 681, 703
(1997). “It remains one of the most vital functions of this Court to
police with care the separation of the governing powers . . . . When
structure fails, liberty is always in peril.” Public Citizen v.
U.S. Dept. of Justice, 491 U.S. 440, 468 (1989) (Kennedy, J.,
concurring). <br>
Because of the very secrecy of the activity here challenged, Plaintiffs
each must be and are given standing to challenge it, because each of
them, is injured and chilled substantially in the exercise of First
Amendment rights so long as it continues. Indeed, as the perceived
need for secrecy has apparently required that no person be notified that
he is aggrieved by the activity, and there have been no prosecutions, no
requests for extensions or retroactive approvals of warrants, no victim
in America would be given standing to challenge this or any other
unconstitutional activity, according to the Government. The
activity has been acknowledged, nevertheless. <br>
Plaintiffs have sufficiently alleged that they suffered an actual,
concrete injury traceable to Defendants and redressable by this court.
Accordingly, this court denies Defendants’ motion to dismiss for lack of
standing. <br><br>
IV. The History of Electronic Surveillance in America <br>
Since the Court’s 1967 decision of Katz v. U.S., 389 U.S. 347 (1967), it
has been understood that the search and seizure of private telephone
conversations without physical trespass required prior judicial sanction,
pursuant to the Fourth Amendment. Justice Stewart there wrote for
the Court that searches conducted without prior approval by a judge or
magistrate were per se unreasonable, under the Fourth Amendment.
Id. at 357. <br>
Congress then, in 1968, enacted Title III of the Omnibus Crime Control
and Safe Streets Act (hereinafter “Title III”)24 governing all wire and
electronic interceptions in the fight against certain listed major
crimes. The Statute defined an “ aggrieved person”,25 and gave su=
ch
person standing to challenge any interception allegedly made without a
judicial order supported by probable cause, after requiring notice to
such person of any interception made.26 <br>
The statute also stated content requirements for warrants and
applications under oath therefor made,27 including time, name of the
target, place to be searched and proposed duration of that search, and
provided that upon showing of an emergency situation, a post-interception
warrant could be obtained within forty-eight hours.28 <br>
In 1972 the court decided U.S. v. U.S. District Court, 407 U.S. 297
(1972) (the Keith case) and held that, for lawful electronic surveillance
even in domestic security matters, the Fourth Amendment requires a prior
warrant. <br>
In 1976 the Congressional “Church Committee”29 disclosed that every
President since 1946 <br>
24Pub. L. 90-351, 82 Stat. 211, codified as amended at 18 U.S.C. §§ 251=
0
et seq.<br>
2518 U.S.C. § 2510(11) (“aggrieved person” means a person who was a p=
arty
to any intercepted wire, oral,<br><br>
or electronic communication or a person against whom the interception was
directed.) <br>
2618 U.S.C. § 2518 <br>
2718 U.S.C. § 2518(1) <br>
2818 U.S.C. § 2518(7) <br>
29The “Church Committee” was the United States Committee to Study
Governmental Operations with <br>
Respect to Intelligence Activities. 25 <br>
had engaged in warrantless wiretaps in the name of national security, and
that there had been numerous political abuses30, and in 1978 Congress
enacted the FISA.31 <br>
Title III specifically excluded from its coverage all interceptions of
international or foreign communications; and was later amended to state
that “the FISA of 1978 shall be the exclusive means by which
electronic surveillance of foreign intelligence communications may be
conducted.”32 <br>
The government argues that Title III’s disclaimer language, at 18 U.S.C.
§ 2511(2)(f), that nothing therein should be construed to limit the
constitutional power of the President (to make international wiretaps).
In the Keith case, Justice Powell wrote that “Congress simply left
Presidential powers where it found them”, that the disclaimer was totally
neutral, and not a grant of authority. U.S. v. U.S. District Court, 407
U.S. at 303. <br>
The FISA defines a “United States person”33 to include each of Plaintif=
fs
herein and requires a prior warrant for any domestic international
interception of their communications. For various exigencies,
exceptions are made. That is, the government is granted fifteen
days from Congressional Declaration of War within which it may conduct
intercepts before application for an order.34 It is also granted one
year, on certification by the Attorney General,35 and seventy-two hours
for other <br>
30S. REP. NO. 94-755, at 332 (1976)<br>
31Pub. L. 95-511, Title I, 92 Stat 1976 (Oct. 25, 1978), codified as
amended at 50 U.S.C. §§ 1801 et seq. <br>
3218 U.S.C. §2511(2)(f)<br>
3350 U.S.C. § 1801(h)(4)(i)(“United States person) means a citizen of t=
he
United States, an alien lawfully<br><br>
admitted for permanent residence, an unincorporated association a
substantial number of members of which are citizens of the United States
or aliens lawfully admitted for permanent residence, or a corporation
which is incorporated in the United States which is not a foreign power.
<br>
3450 U.S.C. § 1811 <br>
3550 U.S.C. § 1802 <br>
defined exigencies.36 <br>
Those delay provisions clearly reflect the Congressional effort to
balance executive needs against the privacy rights of United States
persons, as recommended by Justice Powell in the Keith case when he
stated that: <br>
Different standards may be compatible with the Fourth Amendment if they
are reasonable both in relation to the legitimate need of Government for
intelligence information and the protected rights of our citizens.. U.S.
v. U.S. District Court, 407 U.S. at 322-323. <br>
Also reflective of the balancing process Congress pursued in FISA is the
requirement that interceptions may be for no longer than a ninety day
duration, minimization is again required37, and an aggrieved person is
again (as in Title III) required to be notified of proposed use and given
the opportunity to file a motion to suppress.38 Also again,
alternatives to a wiretap must be found to have been exhausted or to have
been ineffective.39 <br>
A FISA judicial warrant, moreover, requires a finding of probable cause
to believe that the target was either a foreign power or agent thereof,40
not that a crime had been or would be committed, as Title III’s more
stringent standard required. Finally, a special FISA court was
required to be appointed, of federal judges designated by the Chief
Justice.41 They were required to hear, ex parte, all applications and
make all orders.42 <br>
3650 U.S.C. § 1805(f) <br>
3750 U.S.C. § 1805(e)(1) <br>
3850 U.S.C. § 1806(c) <br>
3950 U.S.C. § 1804(a)(7)(E)(ii), § 1805(a)(5) <br>
4050 U.S.C. § 1805(b) <br>
4150 U.S.C § 1803 <br>
4250 U.S.C § 1805 <br>
The FISA was essentially enacted to create a secure framework by which
the Executive branch may conduct legitimate electronic surveillance for
foreign intelligence while meeting our national commitment to the Fourth
Amendment. It is fully described in United States v. Falvey, 540
<br>
F. Supp. 1306 (E.D.N.Y. 1982), where the court held that FISA did not
intrude upon the President’s undisputed right to conduct foreign affairs,
but protected citizens and resident aliens within this country, as
“United States persons.” Id. at 1312. <br>
The Act was subsequently found to meet Fourth Amendment requirements
constituting a reasonable balance between Governmental needs and the
protected rights of our citizens, in United States v. Cavanagh, 807 F.2d
787 (9th Cir. 1987), and United States v. Duggan,743, F.2d 59 (2d Cir.
1984). <br>
Against this background the present program of warrantless wiretapping
has been authorized by the administration and the present lawsuit filed.
<br><br>
V. The Fourth Amendment <br>
The Constitutional Amendment which must first be discussed provides:
<br>
The right the of people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers,
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be
violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported
by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be
searched, and the persons or things to be seized. <br>
U.S. CONST. Amend. IV. <br>
This Amendment “. . . was specifically propounded and ratified with
the memory of . . . Entick v. Carrington, 95 Eng. Rep. 807 (1765) in
mind”, stated Circuit Judge Skelly Wright in Zweibon v. Mitchell, 516
F.2d 594, 618 n.67 (D.C. Circ. 1975) (en banc) (plurality opinion).
Justice Douglas, in his concurrence in the Keith case, also noted the
significance of Entick in our history, stating: <br>
For it was such excesses as the use of general warrants and the writs of
assistance that led to the ratification of the Fourth Amendment. In
Entick v. Carrington (citation omitted), decided in 1765, one finds a
striking parallel to the executive warrants utilized here. The Secretary
of State had issued general executive warrants to his messengers
authorizing them to roam about and to seize libelous material and
libellants of the sovereign. Entick, a critic of the Crown, was the
victim of one such general search during which his seditious publications
were impounded. He brought a successful damage action for trespass
against the messengers. The verdict was sustained on appeal. Lord
Camden wrote that if such sweeping tactics were validated, then the
secret cabinets and bureaus of every subject in this kingdom will be
thrown open to the search and inspection of a messenger, whenever the
secretary of state shall think fit to charge, or even to suspect, a
person to be the author, printer, or publisher of a seditious libel.’
(citation omitted) In a related and similar proceeding, Huckle v. Money
(citation omitted), the same judge who presided over Entick’s appeal held
for another victim of the same despotic practice, saying ‘(t)o enter a
man’s house by virtue of a nameless warrant, in order to procure
evidence, is worse than the Spanish Inquisition . . .’ See also Wilkes v.
Wood (citation omitted), . . . [t]he tyrannical invasions described and
assailed in Entick, Huckle, and Wilkes, practices which also were endured
by the colonists, have been recognized as the primary abuses which
ensured the Warrant Clause a prominent place in our Bill of Rights.
U.S. v. <br>
U.S. District Court, 407 U.S. at 328-329 (Douglas, J., concurring). <br>
Justice Powell, in writing for the court in the Keith case also wrote
that: <br>
Over two centuries ago, Lord Mansfield held that common-law principles
prohibited warrants that ordered the arrest of unnamed individuals who
the officer might conclude were guilty of seditious libel. ‘It is not
fit,’ said Mansfield, ‘that the receiving or judging of the information
should be left to the discretion of the officer. The magistrate
ought to judge; and should give certain directions to the officer.’
(citation omitted). <br>
Lord Mansfield’s formulation touches the very heart of the Fourth
Amendment directive: that, where practical, a governmental search and
seizure should represent both the efforts of the officer to gather
evidence of wrongful acts and the judgment of the magistrate that the
collected evidence is sufficient to justify invasion of a citizen’s
private premises or conversation. Inherent in the concept of a
warrant is its issuance by a ‘neutral and detached magistrate.’
(citations omitted) The further requirement of ‘probable cause’
instructs the magistrate that baseless searches shall not proceed.
U.S. <br>
v. U.S. District Court, 407 U.S. at 316. The Fourth Amendment,
accordingly, was adopted to assure that Executive abuses of the power to
search would not continue in our new nation. <br>
Justice White wrote in 1984 in United States v. Karo, 468 U.S. 705
(1984), a case involving installation and monitoring of a beeper which
had found its way into a home, that a private residence is a place in
which society recognizes an expectation of privacy; that warrantless
searches of such places are presumptively unreasonable, absent
exigencies. Id. at 714-715. Karo is consistent with Katz where
Justice Stewart held that: <br>
‘Over and again this Court has emphasized that the mandate of the
(Fourth) Amendment requires adherence to judicial processes,’ (citation
omitted) and that searches conducted outside the judicial process,
without prior approval by judge or magistrate, are per se unreasonable
under the Fourth Amendment - subject only to a few specifically
established and well-delineated exceptions. Katz, 389 <br>
U.S. at 357. <br>
Justice Powell’s opinion in the Keith case also stated that: <br>
The Fourth Amendment does not contemplate the executive officers of
Government as neutral and disinterested magistrates. Their duty and
responsibility are to enforce the laws, to investigate, and to prosecute.
(citation omitted) But those charged with this investigative and
prosecutorial duty should not be the sole judges of when to utilize
constitutionally sensitive means in pursuing their tasks. The historical
judgment, which the Fourth Amendment accepts, is that unreviewed
executive discretion may yield too readily to pressures to obtain
incriminating evidence and overlook potential invasions of privacy and
protected speech. U.S. v. U.S. District Court, 407 U.S. at 317.
<br>
Accordingly, the Fourth Amendment, about which much has been written, in
its few words requires reasonableness in all searches. It also requires
prior warrants for any reasonable search, based upon prior-existing
probable cause, as well as particularity as to persons, places, and
things, and the interposition of a neutral magistrate between Executive
branch enforcement officers and citizens. <br>
In enacting FISA, Congress made numerous concessions to stated executive
needs. They include delaying the applications for warrants until
after surveillance has begun for several types of exigencies, reducing
the probable cause requirement to a less stringent standard, provision of
a single court of judicial experts, and extension of the duration of
approved wiretaps from thirty days (under Title III) to a ninety day
term. <br>
All of the above Congressional concessions to Executive need and to the
exigencies of our present situation as a people, however, have been
futile. The wiretapping program here in litigation has undisputedly
been continued for at least five years, it has undisputedly been
implemented without regard to FISA and of course the more stringent
standards of Title III, and obviously in violation of the Fourth
Amendment. <br>
The President of the United States is himself created by that same
Constitution. <br><br>
VI. The First Amendment <br>
The First Amendment provides: <br>
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or
prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of
speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to
assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
<br>
U.S. CONST. Amend. I. <br>
This Amendment, the very first which the American people required to be
made to the new Constitution, was adopted, as was the Fourth, with Entick
v. Carrington, and the actions of the star chamber in mind. As the
Court wrote in Marcus v. Search Warrants, 367 U.S. 717 (1961): <br>
Historically the struggle for freedom of speech and press in England was
bound up with the issue of the scope of the search and seizure. . . .
<br>
* * * * This history was, of course, part of the intellectual matrix
within which our own constitutional fabric was shaped. The Bill of
Rights was fashioned against the background of knowledge that
unrestricted power of search and seizure could also be an instrument for
stifling liberty of expression. Marcus, 367 U.S. at 724, 729 <br>
As Justice Brennan wrote for the Court in Dombrowski v. Pfister, 380 U.S.
479 (1965), the appellant organizations had been subjected to repeated
announcements of their subversiveness which frightened off potential
members and contributors, and had been harmed irreparably, requiring
injunctive relief. The Louisiana law against which they complained,
moreover, had a chilling effect on protected expression because, so long
as the statute was available, the threat of prosecution for protected
expression remained real and substantial. <br>
Judge Wright, in Zweibon, noted that the tapping of an organization’s
office phone will provide the membership roster of that organization, as
forbidden by Bates v. City of Little Rock, 361 <br>
U.S. 516 (1960); thereby causing members to leave that organization, and
thereby chilling the organization’s First Amendment rights and causing
the loss of membership. Zweibon, 516 F.2d at <br>
634. <br>
A governmental action to regulate speech may be justified only upon
showing of a compelling governmental interest; and that the means chosen
to further that interest are the least restrictive of freedom of belief
and association that could be chosen. Clark v. Library of Congress,
750 F.2d 89, 94 (D.C. Cir. 1984). <br>
It must be noted that FISA explicitly admonishes that “. . . no United
States person may be considered . . . an agent of a foreign power solely
upon the basis of activities protected by the First <br>
Amendment to the Constitution of the United States.” 50 U.S.C.
§1805(a)(3)(A). See also United <br>
States v. Falvey, 540 F. Supp. at 1310. <br>
Finally, as Justice Powell wrote for the Court in the Keith case: <br>
National security cases, moreover, often reflect a convergence of First
and Fourth Amendment values not present in cases of ‘ordinary’
crime. Though the investigative duty of the executive may be
stronger in such cases, so also is there greater jeopardy to
constitutionally protected speech. ‘Historically the struggle for freedom
of speech and press in England was bound up with the issue of the scope
of the search and seizure power,’ (citation omitted). History abundantly
documents the tendency of Government –however benevolent and benign its
motives – to view with suspicion those who most fervently dispute its
policies. Fourth Amendment protections become the more necessary
when the targets of official surveillance may be those suspected of
unorthodoxy in their political beliefs. U.S. v. U.S. District Court, 407
U.S. at 313-314. <br>
The President of the United States, a creature of the same Constitution
which gave us these <br>
Amendments, has undisputedly violated the Fourth in failing to procure
judicial orders as required <br>
by FISA, and accordingly has violated the First Amendment Rights of these
Plaintiffs as well. <br><br>
VII. The Separation of Powers <br>
The Constitution of the United States provides that “[a]ll legislative
Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States.
. . .”43 It further provides that “[t]he executive Power shall be
vested in a President of the United States of America.”44 And that “. .=
.
he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed . . . .”45 <br>
43U.S. CONST. art. I, § 1<br>
44U.S. CONST. art. II, § 1<br>
45U.S. CONST. art. II, § 3<br><br>
Our constitution was drafted by founders and ratified by a people who
still held in vivid memory the image of King George III and his General
Warrants. The concept that each form of governmental power should
be separated was a well-developed one. James Madison wrote that:
<br>
The accumulation of all powers, legislative, executive, and judiciary, in
the same hands, whether of one, a few, or many, and whether hereditary,
self-appointed, or elective, may justly be pronounced the very definition
of tyranny. THE FEDERALIST NO. 47, at 301 (James Madison). <br>
The seminal American case in this area, and one on which the government
appears to rely, is that of Youngstown Sheet & Tube v. Sawyer, 343
U.S. 579 (1952) in which Justice Black, for the court, held that the
Presidential order in question, to seize steel mills, was not within the
constitutional powers of the chief executive. Justice Black wrote
that: <br>
The founders of this Nation entrusted the law-making power to the
Congress alone in both good and bad times. It would do no good to
recall the historical events, the fears of power and the hopes for
freedom that lay behind their choice. Such a review would but
confirm our holding that this seizure order cannot stand. Youngstown, 343
U.S. at 589.<br>
Justice Jackson’s concurring opinion in that case has become
historic. He wrote that, although the Constitution had diffused
powers the better to secure liberty, the powers of the President are not
fixed, but fluctuate, depending upon their junctures with the actions of
Congress. Thus, if the President acted pursuant to an express or implied
authorization by Congress, his power was at it maximum, or zenith.
If he acted in absence of Congressional action, he was in a zone of
twilight reliant upon only his own independent powers. Youngstown, 343
U.S. at 636-638. But “when the President takes measures incompatible with
the expressed or implied will of Congress, his power is at its lowest
ebb, for he can rely only upon his own Constitutional powers minus any
Constitutional powers of Congress over the matter.” Youngstown, 343 U.S.
at 637 (Jackson, J., <br>
concurring). <br>
In that case, he wrote that it had been conceded that no congressional
authorization existed <br>
for the Presidential seizure. Indeed, Congress had several times covered
the area with statutory <br>
enactments inconsistent with the seizure. He further wrote of the
President’s powers that: <br>
The example of such unlimited executive power that must have most
impressed the forefathers was the prerogative exercised by George III,
and the description of its evils in the Declaration of Independence leads
me to doubt that they were creating their new Executive in his
image. Continental European examples were no more appealing. And if
we seek instruction from our own times, we can match it only from the
executive powers in those governments we disparagingly describe as
totalitarian. I cannot accept the view that this clause is a grant in
bulk of all conceivable executive power but regard it as an allocation to
the presidential office of the generic powers thereafter stated. Id. at
641. <br>
After analyzing the more recent experiences of Weimar, Germany, the
French Republic, and <br>
Great Britain, he wrote that: <br>
This contemporary foreign experience may be inconclusive as to the wisdom
of lodging emergency powers somewhere in a modern government. But
it suggests that emergency powers are consistent with free government
only when their control is lodged elsewhere than in the Executive who
exercises them. That is the safeguard that would be nullified by
our adoption of the ‘inherent powers’ formula. Nothing in my experience
convinces me that such risks are warranted by any real necessity,
although such powers would, of course, be an executive convenience. Id.
at 652. <br>
Justice Jackson concluded that: <br>
With all its defects, delays and inconveniences, men have discovered no
technique for long preserving free government except that the Executive
be under the law, and that the law be made by parliamentary
deliberations. Youngstown, 343 U.S. at 655 (Jackson, J., concurring).
<br>
Accordingly, Jackson concurred, the President had acted unlawfully. <br>
In this case, the President has acted, undisputedly, as FISA
forbids. FISA is the expressed statutory policy of our Congress.
The presidential power, therefore, was exercised at its lowest ebb and
cannot be sustained. <br>
In United States v. Moussaoui, 365 F.3d 292 (4th Cir. 2004) a prosecution
in which production of enemy combatant witnesses had been refused by the
government and the doctrine of Separation of Powers raised, the court,
citing Mistretta v. United States, 488 U.S. 361 (1989), noted that it:
<br>
“[C]onsistently has given voice to, and has reaffirmed, the central
judgment of the Framers of the Constitution that, within our political
scheme, the separation of governmental powers into three coordinate
Branches is essential to the preservation of liberty.” United
States v. Moussaoui, 365 F.3d at 305 citing Mistretta v. United States,
488 <br>
U.S. 361, 380 (1989) <br>
Finally, in the case of Clinton v. Jones, 520 U.S. 681 (1997), the
separation of powers doctrine is again discussed and, again, some overlap
of the authorities of two branches is permitted. In that case, although
Article III jurisdiction of the federal courts is found intrusive and
burdensome to the Chief Executive it did not follow, the court held, that
separation of powers principles would be violated by allowing a lawsuit
against the Chief Executive to proceed. Id. at 701. Mere
burdensomeness or inconvenience did not rise to the level of superceding
the doctrine of separation of powers. Id. at 703. <br>
In this case, if the teachings of Youngstown are law, the separation of
powers doctrine has been violated. The President, undisputedly, has
violated the provisions of FISA for a five-year period. Justice Black
wrote, in Youngstown: <br>
Nor can the seizure order be sustained because of the several
constitutional provisions that grant executive power to the President.
<br>
36 <br>
In the framework of our Constitution, the President’s power to see that
the laws are faithfully executed refutes the idea that he is to be a
lawmaker. The Constitution limits his functions in the lawmaking
process to the recommending of laws he thinks wise and the vetoing of
laws he thinks bad. And the Constitution is neither silent nor
equivocal about who make laws which the President is to execute. The
first section of the first article says that ‘All legislative powers
herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States * * *’
<br>
The President’s order does not direct that a congressional policy be
executed in a manner prescribed by Congress – it directs that a
presidential policy be executed in a manner prescribed by the President.
. . . The Constitution did not subject this law-making power of Congress
to presidential or military supervision or control. Youngstown, 343 U.S.
at 587-588. <br>
These secret authorization orders must, like the executive order in that
case, fall. They <br>
violate the Separation of Powers ordained by the very Constitution of
which this President is a <br>
creature. <br><br>
VIII. The Authorization for Use of Military Force <br>
After the terrorist attack on this Country of September 11, 2001, the
Congress jointly enacted <br>
the Authorization for Use of Military Force (hereinafter “AUMF”) which
states: <br>
That the President is authorized to use all necessary and appropriate
force against those nations, organizations, or persons he determines
planned, authorized, committed, or aided the terrorist attacks that
occurred on September 11, 2001, or harbored such organizations or
persons, in order to prevent any future acts of international terrorism
against the United States by such nations, organizations or persons.46
<br>
The Government argues here that it was given authority by that resolution
to conduct the TSP <br>
in violation of both FISA and the Constitution. <br>
First, this court must note that the AUMF says nothing whatsoever of
intelligence or <br>
46Authorization for Use of Military Force, Pub. L. No. 107-40, § 2(a),
115 Stat. 224 (Sept. 18, 2001) (reported as a note to 50 U.S.C.A. § 1541)
<br>
surveillance. The government argues that such authority must be
implied. Next it must be noted that FISA and Title III, are
together by their terms denominated by Congress as the exclusive means by
which electronic surveillance may be conducted. Both statutes have
made abundantly clear that prior warrants must be obtained from the FISA
court for such surveillance, with limited exceptions, none of which are
here even raised as applicable. Indeed, the government here claims that
the AUMF has by implication granted its TSP authority for more than five
years, although FISA’s longest exception, for the Declaration of War by
Congress, is only fifteen days from date of such a Declaration.47 <br>
FISA’s history and content, detailed above, are highly specific in their
requirements, and the AUMF, if construed to apply at all to intelligence
is utterly general. In Morales v. TWA, Inc., 504 <br>
U.S. 374 (1992), the Supreme Court taught us that “it is a commonplace of
statutory construction that the specific governs the general.” Id. at
384. The implication argued by Defendants, therefore, cannot be made by
this court. <br>
The case of Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507 (2004) in which the Supreme
Court held that a United States citizen may be held as an enemy
combatant, but is required by the U.S. Constitution to be given due
process of law, must also be examined. Justice O’Connor wrote for
the court that: <br>
[D]etention of individuals . . . for the duration of the particular
conflict in which they are captured is so fundamental and accepted an
incident to war as to be an exercise of the “necessary and appropriate
force” Congress has authorized the President to use. Hamdi, 542
<br>
U.S. at 518. <br>
She wrote that the entire object of capture is to prevent the captured
combatant from returning to his same enemy force, and that a prisoner
would most certainly return to those forces <br>
4750 U.S.C. § 1811 <br>
if set free. Congress had, therefore, clearly authorized detention by the
Force Resolution. Id. at 518<br>
519. <br>
However, she continued, indefinite detention for purposes of
interrogation was certainly not authorized and it raised the question of
what process is constitutionally due to a citizen who disputes the enemy
combatant status assigned him. Hamdi, 542 U.S. at 521, 524. <br>
Justice O’Connor concluded that such a citizen must be given Fifth
Amendment rights to contest his classification, including notice and the
opportunity to be heard by a neutral decisionmaker. Hamdi, 542 U.S.
at 533 (citing Cleveland Board of Education v. Laudermill, 470 <br>
U.S. 532 (1985)). Accordingly, her holding was that the Bill of Rights of
the United States Constitution must be applied despite authority granted
by the AUMF. She stated that: It is during our most challenging and
uncertain moments that our Nation’s commitment to due process is most
severely tested; and it is in those times that we must preserve our
commitment at home to the principles for which we fight abroad. * * * *
Any process in which the Executive’s factual assertions go wholly
unchallenged or are simply presumed correct without any opportunity for
the alleged combatant to demonstrate otherwise falls <br>
constitutionally short. Hamdi, 542 U.S. at 532, 537. Under Hamdi,
accordingly, the Constitution of the United States must be followed. The
AUMF resolution, if indeed it is construed as replacing FISA, gives no
support to <br>
Defendants here. Even if that Resolution superceded all other statutory
law, Defendants have violated the Constitutional rights of their citizens
including the First Amendment, Fourth Amendment, and the Separation of
Powers doctrine. <br><br>
IX. Inherent Power <br>
Article II of the United States Constitution provides that any citizen of
appropriate birth, age and residency may be elected to the Office of
President of the United States and be vested with the executive power of
this nation.48 <br>
The duties and powers of the Chief Executive are carefully listed,
including the duty to be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the
United States,49 and the Presidential Oath of Office is set forth in the
Constitution and requires him to swear or affirm that he “will, to the
best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the
United States.”50 <br>
The Government appears to argue here that, pursuant to the penumbra of
Constitutional language in Article II, and particularly because the
President is designated Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, he has
been granted the inherent power to violate not only the laws of the
Congress but the First and Fourth Amendments of the Constitution,
itself. <br>
We must first note that the Office of the Chief Executive has itself been
created, with its powers, by the Constitution. There are no hereditary
Kings in America and no powers not created by the Constitution. So all
“inherent powers” must derive from that Constitution. <br>
We have seen in Hamdi that the Fifth Amendment of the United States
Constitution is fully applicable to the Executive branch’s actions and
therefore it can only follow that the First and Fourth Amendments must be
applicable as well.51 In the Youngstown case the same “inherent
powers” argument was raised and the Court noted that the President had
been created Commander in Chief <br>
48U.S. CONST. art. II, § 5 <br>
49U.S. CONST. art. II, § 2[1] <br>
50U.S. CONST. art. II, § 1[8] <br>
51See generally Hamdi, 542 U.S. 507 (2004) <br>
of only the military, and not of all the people, even in time of war.52
Indeed, since Ex Parte Milligan, we have been taught that the
“Constitution of the United States is a law for rulers and people,
equally in war and in peace. . . .” Ex Parte Milligan, 71 U.S. (4 Wall.)
2, 120 (1866). Again, in Home Building & Loan Ass’n v. Blaisdell, we
were taught that no emergency can create power.53 <br>
Finally, although the Defendants have suggested the unconstitutionality
of FISA, it appears to this court that that question is here
irrelevant. Not only FISA, but the Constitution itself has been
violated by the Executive’s TSP. As the court states in Falvey, even
where statutes are not explicit, the requirements of the Fourth Amendment
must still be met.54 And of course, the Zweibon opinion of Judge Skelly
Wright plainly states that although many cases hold that the President’s
power to obtain foreign intelligence information is vast, none suggest
that he is immune from Constitutional requirements.55 <br>
The argument that inherent powers justify the program here in litigation
must fail. <br><br>
X. Practical Justifications for Exemption <br>
First, it must be remembered that both Title III and FISA permit delayed
applications for warrants, after surveillance has begun. Also, the
case law has long permitted law enforcement action to proceed in cases in
which the lives of officers or others are threatened in cases of “hot
pursuit”, border searches, school locker searches, or where emergency
situations exist. See generally Warden v. Hayden, 387 U.S. 294
(1967); Veronia School District v. Acton, 515 U.S. 646 <br>
52See generally Youngstown, 343 U.S. 579 (1952) <br>
53See generally Home Building & Loan Ass’n v. Blaisdell, 290 U.S. 398
(1934) <br>
54See generally Falvey, 540 F. Supp. 1306 (E.D.N.Y. 1982) <br>
55See generally Zweibon, 516 F.2d 594 (D.C. Circ. 1975) <br>
(1995); and Michigan Department of State Police v. Sitz, 496 U.S. 444
(1990). <br>
Indeed, in Zweibon, Judge Wright enumerates a number of Defendants’
practical arguments here (including judicial competence, danger of
security leaks, less likelihood of criminal prosecution, delay, and the
burden placed upon both the courts and the Executive branch by
compliance) and finds, after long and careful analysis, that none
constitutes adequate justification for exemption from the requirements of
either FISA or the Fourth Amendment. Zweibon, 516 F.2d at 641. It is
noteworthy, in this regard, that Defendants here have sought no
Congressional amendments which would remedy practical difficulty. <br>
As long ago as the Youngstown case, the Truman administration argued that
the cumbersome procedures required to obtain warrants made the process
unworkable.56 The Youngstown court made short shift of that
argument and, it appears, the present Defendants’ need for speed and
agility is equally weightless. The Supreme Court in the Keith57, as well
as the Hamdi58 cases, has attempted to offer helpful solutions to the
delay problem, all to no avail. <br><br>
XI. Conclusion <br>
For all of the reasons outlined above, this court is constrained to grant
to Plaintiffs the Partial Summary Judgment requested, and holds that the
TSP violates the APA; the Separation of Powers doctrine; the First and
Fourth Amendments of the United States Constitution; and the statutory
law. <br>
Defendants’ Motion to Dismiss the final claim of data-mining is granted,
because litigation of that claim would require violation of Defendants’
state secrets privilege. <br>
56See generally Youngstown, 343 U.S. 579 (1952) <br>
57See generally U.S. v. U.S. District Court, 407 U.S. 297 (1972) <br>
58See generally Hamdi, 542 U.S. 507 (2004) <br>
The Permanent Injunction of the TSP requested by Plaintiffs is granted
inasmuch as each of the factors required to be met to sustain such an
injunction have undisputedly been met.59 The irreparable injury
necessary to warrant injunctive relief is clear, as the First and Fourth
Amendment rights of Plaintiffs are violated by the TSP. See Dombrowski v.
Pfister, 380 U.S. 479 (1965). The irreparable injury conversely sustained
by Defendants under this injunction may be rectified by compliance with
our Constitution and/or statutory law, as amended if necessary.
Plaintiffs have prevailed, and the public interest is clear, in this
matter. It is the upholding of our Constitution. <br>
As Justice Warren wrote in U.S. v. Robel, 389 U.S. 258 (1967):<br>
Implicit in the term ‘national defense’ is the notion of defending<br>
those values and ideas which set this Nation apart. . . . It would<br>
indeed be ironic if, in the name of national defense, we would<br>
sanction the subversion of . . . those liberties . . . which makes
the<br>
defense of the Nation worthwhile. Id. at 264.<br><br>
IT IS SO ORDERED. <br>
Date: August 17, 2006 s/Anna Diggs Taylor Detroit, Michigan ANNA DIGGS
TAYLOR UNITED STATES DISTRICT JUDGE <br>
59It is well-settled that a plaintiff seeking a permanent injunction must
demonstrate: (1) that it has suffered an irreparable injury; (2) that
remedies available at law, such as monetary damages, are inadequate to
compensate for that injury; (3) that, considering the balance of
hardships between the plaintiff and defendant, a remedy in equity is
warranted; and (4) that the public interest would not be disserved by a
permanent injunction. eBay Inc. v. MercExchange, L.L.C. 126 S.Ct. 1837,
1839 (2006). Further, “[a] party is entitled to a permanent injunction if
it can establish that it suffered a constitutional violation and will
suffer “continuing irreparable injury” for which there is <br>
no adequate remedy at law.” Women's Medical Professional Corp. v.
Baird, 438 F.3d 595, 602 (6th Cir. 2006). <br>
CERTIFICATE OF SERVICE <br>
The undersigned certifies that the foregoing Memorandum Order was served
upon counsel of record via the Court's ECF System to their respective
email addresses or First Class U.S. mail disclosed on the Notice of
Electronic Filing on August 17, 2006. <br>
s/Johnetta M. Curry-Williams Case Manager <br><br>
<br><br>
<br><br>
<br>
<x-sigsep><p></x-sigsep>
<font size=2 color="#FF0000"><i>We Hunt Spies, We Stop Espionage, We Ki=
ll
Bugs, and We Plug Leaks.<br><br>
</i></font><b>James M. Atkinson, President and Sr. Engineer<br>
Granite Island Group<br>
</b>127 Eastern Avenue #291<br>
Gloucester, MA 01930-8008<br>
Phone: (978) 546-3803<br>
Fax: (978) 546-9467<br>
Web: <a href="
http://www.tscm.com/">
http://www.tscm.com/</a><br>
E-Mail: <a href="mailto:jm..._at_tscm.com"><i>jm..._at_tscm.com<br><br>
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Received on Sat Mar 02 2024 - 00:57:16 CST